Bahá’í World/Volume 20/Essays and Reviews

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PART SEVEN

LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS

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The Prison Cell in the Most Great Prison of ‘Akká, where Bahd ’u 716211 and Hisfamily were incarceratedfof two years, two months and five days.

[Page 1069]I ES SAYS AND REVIEWS

1. THE SUFFERING, TRIBULATION, EXILE, CAPTIVITY AND CONFINEMENT OF BAHA’U’LLAH

COMPILED BY DONALD R. WITZEL

INTRODUCTION

BAHA’U’LLAH tells us: The understanding of His words and the comprehension of the utterances of the Birds ofHeaven are in no wise dependent upon human learning. T hey depend solely upon purity ofheart, chastity ofsoul, and freedom of Spirit.1 The memorization of quotations from Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is not only important but vitally necessary for the deepening of the believers and their teaching the Faith.

The sanctified souls shouldpona’er and meditate in their hearts regarding the methods of teaching. From the texts of the wondrous, heavenly Scriptures they should memorize phrases and passages bearing on various instances, so that in the course of their speech they may recite divine verses whenever the occasion demandeth it, inasmuch as these holy verses are the most potent elixir, the greatest and mightiest talisman. S0 potent is their influence that the hearer will have no cause for vacillation. I swear by My life! This Revelation is endowed with such a power that it will act as the lodestone for all nations and kindreds Of the earth.2

To deepen in the Cause means to read the writings of Bahá’u’lláh and the Master so thoroughly as to be able to give it to others in its pure form. There are many who have some superficial idea of what the Cause stands for. They, therefore, present it together with all sorts of ideas that are their own. As the Cause is still in its early days we must be most careful lest we fall into this error and injure the Movement we so much adore. There is no limit to the study of the Cause. The more we read the Writings, the more truths we can find in them, the more we will see that our previous notions were erroneous.3

Spiritualization can be a step towards spiritual transformation which the Universal House

of Justice mentioned in its Riḍván message:

1

Bahá’u’lláh, The Kitáb-i—lqén (Wilmette: Bahá’í 3 Shoghi Effendi, quoted by the Universal House of

Publishing Trust, 1974), p. 211. Justice, Wellspring Of Guidance—Messages from 2 Bahá’u’lláh, T ablets ofBaha ’u ’llah revealed after the Universal House of Justice 1963—1968 the Kitab-i-Aqdas (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1970),

1978), p. 200. pp. 88—89.

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Souls must be transformed, communities thereby consolidated, new models of life thus attained. Transformation is the essential purpose of the Cause of Baha’u’llah, but it lies in the will and effort of the individual to achieve it in obedience to the Covenant. Necessary to the progress of this life-fulfilling transformation is knowledge of the will and purpose of God through regular reading and study of the Holy Word.1

The act of kindling the light of love in every heart “through being set aglow with the fire of the love of God”, of maintaining this “fire of love” and of increasing it daily, can be achieved by reading or listening to the scriptures about the suffering, persecutions and sacrifices of Baha’u’llah on a daily basis. If we understand what He did for us and we keep it always before our eyes, this will increase our love for Him. The purpose of Bahá’u’lláh’s forty years of sacrifice and tribulation was to redeem mankind. We have to fall in love with the Blessed Perfection. This love has to grow daily in our hearts. Then we have to become lovers of Bahá’u’lláh. All the things in this life grow; our love for Baha’u’llah also has to grow. Gradually this love has to convert itself into a great fire as we arise to serve the Cause of God With pure hearts full of a new spirit. This is the transforming power of Baha’u’llah! We live the Bahá’í life and follow the laws of God for the love of Baha’u’llah. For this reason we are firm and constant in God’s Covenant.

The new believers must be deepened in the Covenant. This is really the only source of the fire of the love of God.2

A. THE DAY OF GOD AND ADVENT OF THE PROMISED ONE

The announcement

Behold, how the divers peoples and kindreds Of the earth have been waiting for the coming of the Promised One. No sooner had He, Who is the Sun of T ruth, been made manifest, than, [0, all turned away from Him, except them whom God was pleased to guide. We dare not, in this Day, lift the veil that concealeth the exalted station which every true believer can attain, for the joy which such a revelation must provoke might well cause a few to faint away and a'ie.3

Verily I say, this is the Day in which mankind can behold the Face, and hear the Voice, of the Promised One. The Call of God hath been raised, and the light oins countenance hath been lifted up upon men. It behoveth every man to blot out the trace of every idle word from the tablet of his heart, and to gaze, with an open and unbiased mind, on the signs oins Revelation, the proofs oins Mission, and the tokens oins glory.4

Great indeed is this Day! The allusions made to it in all the sacred Scriptures as the Day of God attest its greatness. The soul ofevery Prophet of God, ofevery Divine Messenger, hath thirsted for this wondrous Day. All the divers kindreds Of the earth have, likewise,

Universal House of Justice, “To the Bahá’ís of the 3 Baha’u’llah, Gleanings from the Writings of

World”, Riḍván, 1989. Baha ’u ’llah (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2 Shoghi Effendi, quoted in The Covenant of 1976), pp. 9—10.

Baha'u'llah (A compilation), (Manchester: Bahá’í 4 ibid., pp. 10—1 1.

Publishing Trust, 1950), p. viii.

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yearned to attain it. No sooner, however, had the Day Star oins Revelation manifested itself in the heaven of God ’s Will, than all, except those whom the Almighty was pleased to guide, were found dumbfounded and heea’less.1

O thou that hast remembered Me! The most grievous veil hath Shut out the peoples of the earth from His glory, and hindered them from hearkening to His call. God grant that the light of unity may envelop the whole earth, and that the seal, “the Kingdom is God’s”, may be stamped upon the brow of all its peoples.2

B. EN ROUTE TO THE SiYAH-QAL OF IIHRAN

An old woman with a stone

As He was approaching that dungeon, an old and decrepit woman was seen to emerge from the midst of the crowd, with a stone in her hand, eager to cast it at the face of Baha’u’llah. Her eyes glowed With a determination and fanaticism of Which few women of her age were capable. Her whole frame shook with rage as she stepped forward and raised her hand to hurl her missile at Him... “I aa’jure you, ” she pleaded, as she ran to overtake those into whose hands Baha’u’llah had been delivered, “give me a chance to fling my stone in his face! ” "Sufier not this woman to be disappointed, ” were Baha’u’llah’s words to His guards, as He saw her hastening behind Him. “Deny her not what she regards as a meritorious act in the sight ofGoa’. ”3

C. THE SiYAH-QHAL, THE BLACK PIT

God alone knoweth what befell Bahá’u’lláh

We were consigned for four months to a placefoul beyond comparison. As to the dungeon in which this Wronged One and others similarly wronged were confined, a dark and narrow pit were preferable... The dungeon was wrapped in thick darkness, and Our fellow-prisoners numbered nearly a hundred and fifty souls: thieves, assassins, and highwaymen. T hough crowded, it had no other outlet than the passage by which We entered. N0 pen can depict that place, nor any tongue describe its loathsome smell. Most Ofthese men had neither clothes nor bedding to lie on. God alone knoweth what befell Us in that mostfoul—smelling ana’ gloomy place!4

The prison into which my father had been cast was a terrible place, seven steps below the ground; it was ankle-deep in filth, infested with horrible vermin, and of an indescribable loathsomeness. Added to this, there was no glimmer of light in that noisome place. Within its walls forty Babis were crowded; murderers and highway robbers were also imprisoned there. My noble father was hurled into this black hole, loaded with heavy chains; five other Babis were chained to him night and day, and here He remained for four months. Picture to yourself the horror of these conditions.

ibid., p. 11. 4 Bahá’u’lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf ibid. (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1979), Nabil—i—A’zam, The Dawnbreakers (Wilmette: pp. 20—21.

Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974), pp. 607—608.

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Any movement caused the chains to cut deeper and deeper not only into the flesh of one, but of all who were chained to gether; whilst sleep or rest of any kind was not possible. No food was provided, and it was with the utmost difficulty that my mother was able to arrange to get any food or drink taken into that ghastly prison.1

Jamal-i—Mubarak (a name given to my father, i.e., literally the Blessed Beauty) spoke very little of the terrible sufferings of that time! We, who saw the marks of what he had endured, where the chains had cut into the delicate skin, especially that of his neck, his wounded feet so long untended, evidence of the torture of the bastinado, how we wept with my dear mother.

He, on his part, told of the steadfast faith of the friends, who had gone forth to meet their death at the hands of their torturers, with joy and gladness, to attain the crown of martyrdom.2

‘Abdu’l-Bahá tells how one day He was allowed to enter the prison yard to see His beloved F ather when He came out for His daily exercise. Baha’u’llah was terribly altered, so ill He could hardly walk. His hair and heard unkempt, His neck galled and swollen from the pressure of a heavy steel collar, His body bent by the weight of His chains. ...3

Describing His confinement in the Siyah-Chél, the Blessed Beauty recalled: The weight of the chain placed about Our neck was difficult to bear (the heaviest Chain used weighed over fifty kilos), but having the thumbs of both hands bound together behind the back was even more aggravating. The royal guards were unyielding, but the executioners would show us kindness. One even oflered Me tea and some grapes, but as I was freighted with chains and My hands were bound, I was unable to accept them.4

For three days and three nights, no manner of food or drink was given to Baha’u’llah. Rest and sleep were both impossible to Him. The place was infested with vermin, and the stench of that gloomy abode was enough to crush the very spirits of those who were condemned to suffer its horrors.S

Descent of the Holy Spirit——the “Most Great Spirit”

One night in a dream these exalted words were heard on every side: “Verily, We shall render T hee victorious by T hyself and by T hy pen. Grieve T hou not for that which hath befallen T hee, neither be T hou afraid, for T hou art in safety. Ere long will God raise up the treasures of the earth—men who will aid Thee through Thyself and through T hy Name, wherewith God hath revived the hearts of such as have recognized Him. ”6

During the days I lay in the prison of T ihrdn, though the galling weight of the chains and the stench-filled air allowed Me but little sleep, still in those infrequent moments of slumber I felt as if something flowed from the crown of My head over My breast, even as

Bahíyyih I_(_hénum, quoted in Lady Blomfield, 4 ‘Ali-Akbar Fun’itan, Stories of Bahá’u’lláh The Chosen Highway (Wilmette: Bahá’í (Oxford: George Ronald, 1986), p. 108. Publishing Trust, 1967), pp. 4142. 5 Dawnbreakers, p. 608.

2 ibid., pp. 44—45. 6 Bahá’u’lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi,

3 Esslemont, J ohn E., Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era God Passes By (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,

(Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980), p. 51. 1987), p. 101. [Page 1073]1 2

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a mighty torrent that precipitateth itselfupon the earth from the summit of a lofty mountain. Every limb of My body would, as a result, be set afire. At such moments My tongue recited what no man could bear to hear.1

This thing is not from Me, but from One Who is Almighty and All-Knowing. And He bade Me lift up My voice between earth and heaven, and for this there befell Me what hath caused the tears of every man of understanding to flow.... This is but a leaf which the winds of the will of T hy Lord, the Almighty, the All—Praisea’, have stirred...2

D. THE HORRIBLE JOURNEY FROM TIHRAN TO BAfiDAD

The first exile

My God, My Master, My Desire]... T hou has created this atom ofa’ust through the consummate power of T by might, and nurtured Him with T hine hands which none can chain up... T hou hast destined for Him trials and tribulations which no tongue can describe, nor any of T hy T ablets adequately recount. The throat Thou didst accustom t0 the touch ofsilk T hou hast, in the end, clasped with strong chains, and the body T hou didst ease with brocades and velvets T hou hast at last subjected to the abasement of a dungeon. T hy decree hath shackled Me with unnumberedfetters, and cast about My neck chains that none can sander. A number ofyears have passed during which afflictions have, like showers ofmercy, rained upon Me....3

How many the nights during which the weight of chains andfetters allowed Me n0 rest, and how numerous the days during which peace and tranquillity were denied Me, by reason of that wherewith the hands and tongues of men have afflicted Me! Both bread and water which T hoa hast, through T by all-embracing mercy, allowed unto the beasts of the field, they have, for a time, forbidden unto this servant, and the things they refused to inflict upon such as have seceded from T hy Cause, the same have they sufi’erea’ to be inflicted upon Me, until, finally, T hy decree was irrevocably fixed, and T hy behest summoned this servant to depart out ofPersia, accompanied ‘by a number affrail—bodiea' men and children of tender age, at this time when the cold is so intense that one cannot even speak, and ice and snow s0 abundant that it is impossible to move.4

E. BAQEDAD: THE SORROWS AND BLACK WOES

Malice and jealousy were constant

The wrongs which I sufi’er, have blotted out the wrongs sufferea’ by My F irst Name (the Bab) from the Tablet Of,creation.... O Maryam! From the Land of Ta (Tihran), after countless afflictions, We reached ‘Iráq, at the bidding Of the T yrant ofPersia, where, after the fetters of Our foes, We were afi’licted with the perfidy of Our friends. God knoweth what befell Me thereafterl... I have borne what no‘man, be he of the past or the future, hath borne or will bear.5

ibid. 3 ibid., p. 109. ibid., p. 102. 4 ibid. 5 Bahá’u’lláh quoted in God Passes By, p. 118.

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1. wN—d

Oceans of sadness, have surged over Me, a drop of which no soul could bear to drink. Such is My grief that My soul hath well nigh departed from My body... Give ear, 0 Kamal! to the voice of this lowly, this forsaken ant, that hath hid itself in its hole, and whose desire is to depart from your midst, and vanish from your sight, by reason of that which the hands of men have wrought. God verily, hath been witness between Me and His servants.1

Noah ’s flood is but the measure of the tears I have shed, and Abraham ’sfire an ebullition of My soul. Jacob ’s grief is but a reflection of My sorrows, and Job ’s afflictions afraction of my calamity. Pour out patience upon Me, 0 My Lord! and render Me victorious over the transgressors.2

In these days, such odors of jealousy are difi’used, that... from the beginning of the foundation of the world.. until the present day, such malice, envy and hate have in no wise appeared, nor will they ever be witnessed in the future.3

Woe is Me, woe is Me! All that I have seen from the day on which I first drank the pure milk from the breast of My mother until this moment hath been efi’acea’ from My memory, in consequence of that which the hands of the people have committed.4

T hese creatures are the same creatures who for three thousand years have worshipped idols, and bowed down before the Golden Calf. Now, too, they are fit for nothing better. What relation can there be between this people and Him Who is the Countenance of Glory? What ties can bind them to the One Who is the supreme embodiment of all that is lovable?5

F. KURDISTAN THROUGH THE DESERT MOUNTAIN AND SULAYMANiYYIH

Two years in the wilderness

The one object of Our retirement was to avoid becoming a subject of discord among the faithful, a source of disturbance unto Our companions, the means of injury to any soul, or the cause of sorrow to any heart. Our withdrawal contemplated no return, and Our separation hoped for no reunion.6

I roamed the wilderness of resignation traveling in such wise that in My exile every eye wept sore over Me, and all created things shed tears of blood because of My anguish. The birds of the air were My companions and the beasts of the field My associates.7

G. BAggDAD ONCE AGAIN

“Be patient, be patient”

‘ T here was a time in ‘Iráq, when the Ancient Beauty... had no change of linen. The one

shirt He possessed would be washed, dried and worn again.8

ibid. 5 ibid.,p.119. ibid. 6 ibid.,pp.119—120. ibid.,pp.118—119. 7 ibid.,p. 120. ibid.,p.118. 8 ibid.,p. 137.

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I saw the Prophets and the Messengers gather and seat themselves around Me, moaning, weeping and loudly lamenting. Amazed, I inquired of them the reason, whereupon their lamentation and weeping waxed greater, and they said unto me: “We weep for T hee, 0 Most Great Mystery, 0 T abernacle of Immortality! ” T hey wept with such a weeping that I too wept with them. T hereupon the Concourse on high addressed Me saying: “...Erelong shalt T hou behold with T hine own eyes what no Prophet hath beheld. Be patient, be patient. ” T hey continued addressing Me the whole night until the approach of dawn.1

H. THE DECLARATION OF BAHA’U’LLAH

Rigivén: “The Most Great Festival”, “The King of Festivals” and “The Festival of God”

Rejoice, with exceeding gladness, O people of Bahá.’ as ye call to remembrance the Day of supreme felicity, the Day whereon the T ongue of the Ancient of Days hath spoken, as He departed from His House proceeding to the Spot from which He shed upon the whole of creation the splendors of His Name, the All~Merciful... Were We to reveal the hidden secrets of that Day, all that dwell on earth and in the heavens would swoon away and die, except such as will be preserved by God, the Almighty, the All-Knowing, the All— Wise. Such is the inebriating effect of the words of God upon the Revealer of His undoubted proofs that His pen can move no longer.2

The Divine Springtime is come, 0 Most Exalted Pen, for the Festival of the All-Merciful is fast approaching... The Day—Star of Blissfulness shineth above the horizon of Our Name, the Blissful, inasmuch as the Kingdom of the Name of God hath been adorned with the ornament of the Name of T by Lord, the Creator of the heavens... T ake heed lest anything deter T hee from extolling the greatness of this Day—the Day whereon the Finger ofMajesty and Power hath opened the seal of the Wine of Reunion, and called all who are in the heavens and all who are on earth... This is the Day whereon the unseen world crieth out: “Great is thy blessedness, 0 earth, for thou hast been made the footstool of thy God, and been chosen as the seat of His mighty throne. ”3

I. THE EXILE FROM BAgiDAD TO CONSTANTINOPLE “Mounted on His steed, a red roan stallion of the finest breed, the best His lovers could purchase for Him...”

He (God) it was Who enabled Me to depart out of the city (Baghdad), clothed with such majesty as none, except the denier and the malicious, can fail to acknowledge.4

ibid., p. 147. 3 ibid. ibid., p. 154. 4 ibid., p. 155.

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AWNH

J . THE EXILE FROM CONSTANTINOPLE TO ADRIANOPLE

Expelled during freezing weather

...the place which none entereth except such as have rebelled against the authority of the sovereign... T hey expelled Us from thy city (Constantinople) with an abasement with which no abasement on earth can compare... Neither My family, nor those who accompanied Me, had the necessary raiment to protect them from the cold in that freezing weather.... The eyes of Our enemies wept over Us, and beyond them those of every discerningperson.1

Whatever action the ministers of the Sultan took against Us, after having become acquainted with its contents, cannot be regarded as unjustifiable. The acts they committed before its perusal, however, can have nojustification.2

K. ADRIANOPLE: THE PROCLAMATION OF HIS MISSION TO THE KINGS OF THE EARTH

Bahá’u’lláh’s Anguish due to the Maehinations of Mirzá Yahyz’l and Siyyid Muhammad: “The Most Great Separation”, Expulsion of the “Most Great Idol”

He who for months and years I reared with the hand Ofloving-kindness hath risen to take My life... The cruelties inflicted by My oppressors have bowed Me down, and turned My hair white. Shouldst thou present thyselfbefore My throne, thou wouldstfail to recognize the Ancient Beauty, for the freshness oins countenance is altered, and its brightness hath faded, by reason of the oppression of the infidels.... By God! No spot is left on My body that hath not been touched by the spears Ofthy machinations.3

T hou hast perpetrated against thy Brother what no man hath perpetrated against another.... What hast proceeded from thy pen hath caused the Countenances of Glory to be prostratea’ upon the dust, hath rent in twain the Veil ofGrana’eur in the Sublime Paradise, ana’ laceratea’ the hearts of the favored ones established upon the loftiest seats.4

Call to the Kings and Rulers Of the World (Sfiriy-i—Mulfik—Tablet to the Kings—addressed collectively to all the monarchs of the East and the West disclosing the character of His Mission)

0 Kings of the earth! He Who is the sovereign Lord of all is come. The Kingdom is God ’s, the omnipotent Protector, the Self-Subsisting. Worship none but God, and, with radiant hearts, lift up your faces unto your Lord, the Lord of all names. This is a Revelation to which whatever ye possess can never be compared, could ye but know it.5

0 Kings of the earth! The Most Great Law hath been revealed in this Spot, this Scene of transcendent splendour. Every hidden thing hath been brought to light, by virtue of the

ibid., p. 161. 5 Bahá’u’lláh, The Proclamation ofBaha ’u ’Ilah t0 ibid., p. 160. the Kings and Leaders of the World (Haifa: Bahá’í ibid., p. 169. World Centre, 1972), p. 5.

ibid., pp. 169—170.

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Will of the Supreme Ordainer, He Who hath ushered in the Last Hour, through Whom the Moon hath been Cleft, and every irrevocable decree expounded.1

Ye are but vassals, 0 kings of the earth! He Who is the King of kings hath appeared, arrayed in His most wondrous glory, and is summoning you unto Himself the Help in Peril, the Self-Subsisting. T ake heed lest pride deter you from recognizing the Source of Revelation; lest the things of this world shut you out as by a veil from Him Who is the Creator of heaven. Arise, and serve Him Who is the Desire of all nations, Who hath created you through a word from Him, and ordained you to be, for all time, the emblems of His sovereignty.2

The one true God, exalted be His glory, hath ever regarded, and will continue to regard, the hearts of men as His own, His exclusive possession. All else, whether pertaining to land or sea, whether riches or glory, He hath bequeathed unto the kings and rulers of the earth. From the beginning that hath no beginning the ensign proclaiming the words ‘He doeth whatsoever He willeth ’ hath been unfurled in all its splendour before His Manifestation. What mankind needeth in this day is obedience unto them that are in authority, and a faithful adherence to the cord of wisdom. The instruments which are essential to the immediate protection, the security and assurance of the human race have been entrusted to the hands, and lie in the grasp, of the governors of human society. This is the wish of God and His decree... We cherish the hope that one of the kings of the earth will, for the sake of God, arise for the triumph of this wronged, this oppressedpeople. Such a king will be eternally extolled ana’ glorified. God hath prescribed unto this people the duty of aiding whosoever will aid them, of serving his best interests, and of demonstrating to him their abiding loyalty. T hey who follow Me must strive, under all circumstances, to promote the welfare of whosoever will arise for the triumph of My Cause, and must at all times prove their devotion and fidelity unto him. Happy is the man that hearkeneth and observeth My counsel. Woe unto him that faileth to fulfil My wish.3

L. THE PRISON CITY OF ‘AKKA—THE MOST GREAT PRISON

Arrival at ‘Akká

“Know thou, ” Bahá’u’lláh, wishing to emphasize the criticalness of the first nine years of His banishment to that prison-city, has written, "that upon Our arrival at this Spot, We chose to designate it as the ‘Most Great Prison. ’ T hough previously subjected in another land (Tihran) to chains and fetters, We yet refused to call it by that name. Say: Ponder thereon, O ye endued with understanding! ”4

. . . we had reached ‘Akká, the end of our journey. The landing at this place was achieved with much difficultyg... All the townspeople had assembled to see the arrival of the prisoners. Having been told that we were infidels, criminals, and sowers of sedition, the attitude of the crowd was threatening. Their yelling of curses and execrations filled us with fresh misery. We were terrified of the unknown! We knew not what the fate of our

ibid. 3 ibid., pp. 13—14. ibid., pp. 5—6. 4 God Passes By, p. 185.

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2 3

party, the friends and ourselves would be. We were taken to the old fortress of ‘Akká, where we were crowded together.l

Having, after a miserable voyage, disembarked at ‘Akká, all the exiles, men, women and children, were under the eyes of a curious and callous population that had assembled at the port to behold the “God of the Persians,” conducted to the army barracks, where they were locked in, and sentinels detailed to guard them. “T he first night, ” Baha’u’llah testifies in the Lawh-i-Ra’is, “all were deprived ofeitherfood or drink T hey even begged for water, and were refused. ” So filthy and brackish was the water in the pool of the courtyard that no one could drink it. Three loaves of black and salty bread were assigned to each, which they were later permitted to exchange, when escorted by guards to the market, for two of better quality. Subsequently they were allowed a mere pittance as substitute for the allotted dole of bread. A11 fell sick, except two, shortly after their arrival. Malaria, dysentery, combined with the sultry heat, added to their miseries. Three succumbed, among them two brothers, who died the same night, “locked, ” as testified by Bahá’u’lláh, “in each other ’s arms. ” The carpet used by Him He gave to be sold in order to provide for their winding-sheets and burial. The paltry sum obtained after it had been auctioned was delivered to the guards, who had refused to bury them without first being paid the necessary expenses. Later, it was learned that, unwashed and unshrouded, they had buried them, without coffins, in the clothes they wore, though, as affirmed by Baha’u’llah, they were given twice the amount required for their burial. “None, ” He Himself has written, “knoweth what befell Us, except God, the Almighty, the All-Knowing From the foundation of the world until the present day a cruelty such as this hath neither been seen nor heard of. ”2

The Prison

“He hath, during the greater part oins life, ” He, referring to Himself, has, moreover, recorded, “been sore-tried in the clutches of His enemies. His sufferings have now reached their culmination in this afflictive Prison, into which His oppressors have so unjustly thrown Him. ”3

)

Behold how this wronged One is now, whilst surrounded by a “generation of vipers,’ calling aloud and summoning all men to Him Who is the world’s Ultimate Desire, the Summit and Day-Spring ofGlory.4

Tragic Loss of Mirzá Mihdi, the Purest Branch

I have, O my Lord, ofi’ered up that which T hou hast given Me, that T hy servants may be quickenea’, and all that dwell on earth be united.5

T hou art the T rust of God and His T reasure in this Land. Erelong will God reveal through thee that which He hath desired.6

Bahíyyih L(hénum, quoted in Lady Blomfield, 4 Gleam'ngs, p. 345. The Chosen Highway, p. 66. 5 Baha’u’llah, quoted in God Passes By, p. 188. God Passes By, pp. 186~1 87. 6 ibid.

ibid., p. 187.

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The Proclamation of His Mission to the Kings, Rulers and World’s Religious Leaders (continuation)

Upon Our arrival at this Prison We purposed to transmit to the kings the messages of their Lord, the Mighty, the All-Praised. T hough We have transmitted to them, in several T ablets, that which We were commanded, yet We do it once again, as a token of God’s

grace. 1

[Bahá’u’lláh] proclaimed Himself to be “the King ofKings ” and “the Desire of all Nations declared them [the kings and rulers] to be His “vassals ” and “emblems oins sovereignty ”; ...2

TABLET TO QUEEN VICTORIA

We have been informed that thou hast forbidden the trading in slaves, both men and women. T his, verily, is what God hath enjoined in this wondrous Revelation... We have also heard that thou has entrusted the reins of counsel into the hands of the representatives of the people. T hou, indeed, hast done well, for thereby the foundations of the edifice Of thine aflairs will be strengthened, and the hearts of all that are beneath thy shadow, whether high or law, will be tranquilizea’.3

In His Tablet to Queen Victoria He, moreover, invites these kings to hold fast to “the Lesser Peace, ” since they had refused “the Most Great Peace ”; exhorts them to be reconciled among themselves, to unite and to reduce their armaments; bids them refrain from laying excessive burdens on their subj ects, Who, He informs them, are their “wards ” and “treasures”; enunciates the principle that should any one among them take up arms against another, all should rise against him; and warns them not to deal With Him as the “King oflslam ” and his ministers had dealt.4

SECOND TABLET TO THE EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH, NAPOLEON III

For what thou hast done, thy kingdom shall be thrown into confusion, and thine empire shall pass from thine hands, as a punishment for that which thou hast wrought. T hen wilt thou know how thou hast plainly erred. Commotions shall seize all the people in that land, unless thou arisest to help this Cause, and followest Him Who is the Spirit of God (Jesus Christ) in this, the Straight Path. Hath thy pomp made thee proud? By My Life! It shall not endure; nay, it shall soon pass away, unless thou holdest fast by this firm Card. We see abasement hastening after thee, whilst thou art of the heedless. It behoveth thee when thou hearest His Voice calling from the seat ofglory to cast away all that thou possessest, and cry out: “Here am I, 0 Lord of all that is in heaven and all that is on earth! ”5 V

BAHA’U’LLAH PREDICTED THE FALL OF THOSE WHO PARTICIPATED IN HIS BANISHMENT. ..

...such as Fu’éd Péshé—Minister of Foreign Relations for Turkey. He was expelled from his post and died in France from a heart attack. His colleague, the Prime Minister—JAH

ibid., p. 206. 4 God Passes By, pp. 20mm. 2 God Passes By, p. 206. 5 The Proclamation ofBaha ’u ’llah, 3 The Proclamation ofBaha ’u ’llah, pp. 33—34. pp. 20—21.

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Péshé—was fired soon after the prediction of Bahá’u’lláh. Then came the overthrow and the death of Sultén ‘Abdu’l-‘Aziz and the loss of the Turkish territories in Europe.

THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 111.. .

...came in less than a year due to the disastrous Franco-Prussian War. The invasion of the papal estates and the annexation of Rome by the forces of the new Italian Kingdom came only a few months after a statement of Bahá’u’lláh addressed to the Pontiff Pope Pius IX.

Abandon thy kingdom unto the kings, and emerge from thy habitation, with thyface set towards the Kingdom... Be as thy Lord hath been... Verily, the day of ingathering is come, and all things have been separated from each other. He hath stored away that which He chose in the vessels of justice, and cast into the fire that which befitteth it.1

BAHA’U’LLAH STRONGLY WARNED THE GERMAN KING—WILLIAM I. ..

...whose government provoked the war with France and established the new “German Empire”.

0 banks of the Rhine! We have seen you covered with gore, inasmuch as the swords of retribution were drawn against you; and you shall have another turn. And We hear the lamentations of Berlin, though she be today in conspicuous glory.2

IN THE TABLET TO THE RULERS OF AMERICA AND THE PRESIDENTS OF ITS REPUBLICS. ..

He announced the arrival of the Day of God and closed with a call that is unparalleled with His other messages. Truly it is a mandate.

Bind ye the broken with the hands of justice, and crush the oppressor who flourisheth with the rod of the commandments of your Lord, the Ordainer, the All-- Wise.3

Revelation and Promulgation of the Kitáb-i-Aqdass

In Bahá’u’lláh’s words, the Kitáb—i-Aqdas is the “Most Sacred Book”, the “new heaven”, the “new earth”, “the Tabernacle of God”, the “Holy City”, the “Bride”, “New Jerusalem coming down from God”, the “Holy City”, this “Most Holy Book”, the “Most Great Law”, and the “Unerring Balance”; and in the words of Shoghi Effendi: “Charter of the future world civilization.”

T hink not that We have revealed unto you a mere code of laws. Nay, rather, We have unsealed the choice Wine with the fingers of might and power. T 0 this beareth witness that which the Pen ofRevelation hath revealed. Meditate upon this, 0 men of insight!4

Blessed those who meditate upon it! Blessed those who ponder its meaning! So vast is its range that it hath encompassed all men ere their recognition of it. Erelong will its sovereign power, its pervasive influence and the greatness of its might be manifested on earth.5

1 ibid., pp. 85—86. 4 Bahá’u’lláh, Synopsis and Codification Of the Kitabibid., p. 39. i-Aqdas the Most Holy Book of Baha ’u 71% (Haifa: 3 ibid., p. 63. Bahá’í World Centre, 1973), frontispiece.

5 Bahá’u’lláh, quoted in God Passes By, p. 216.

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... the Kitáb-i—Aqdas, revealed from first to last by the Author of the Dispensation Himself, not only preserves for posterity the basic laws and ordinances on Which the fabric of His future World Order must rest, but ordains, in addition to the function of interpretation which it confers upon His Successor, the necessary institutions through which the integrity and unity of His Faith can alone be safeguarded.1

"We, verily, ” wrote Bahá’u’lláh, surveying, in the evening of His life, from His Most Great Prison, the entire range of this vast and weighty Revelation, “have not fallen short of Our duty to exhort men, and to deliver that whereunto I was bidden by God, the Almighty, the All-Praz'sed. ” “Is there any excuse, ” He further has stated, “left for any one in this Revelation? No, by God, the Lord of the Mighty T hrone! My signs have encompassed the earth, and My power enveloped all mankind. ”2

M. BAHA’U’LLAH’S CAPTIVITY: THE PURPOSE FOR HIS SUFFERING

What Could Possibly Cause Him Shame?

My captivity can bring on Me no shame. Nay, by My life, it conferreth on Me glory. T hat which can make Me ashamed is the conduct ofsuch of My followers as profess to love Me, yet in fact follow the Evil One. T hey, indeed, are of the lost.3

The Ancient Beauty hath consented to be bound with chains that mankind may be released from its bondage, and hath accepted to be made a prisoner within this most mighty Stronghold that the whole world may attain unto true liberty. He hath drained to its dregs the cup of sorrow, that all the peoples of the earth may attain unto abiding joy, and be filled with gladness. This is of the mercy of your Lord, the Compassionate, the Most Merciful. We have accepted to be abased, 0 believers in the Unity of God, that ye may be exalted, and have suffered manifold afflictions, that ye might prosper and flourish. He Who hath come to build anew the whole world, behold, how they that have joinedpartners with God have forced Him to dwell within the most desolate ofcities! 4

Why did He suffer so much? THE LOVE OF GOD

As My tribulations multiplied, so did My love for God and for His Cause increase, in such wise that all that befell Me from the hosts of the wayward was powerless to deter Me from My purpose. Should they hide Me away in the depths of the earth, yet would they find Me riding aloft 0n the clouds, and calling out unto God, the Lord ofstrength and of might. I have ofi’ered Myself up in the way of God, and I yearn after tribulations in My love for Him, and for the sake oins g00d~pleasure. Unto this bear witness the woes which now afflict Me, the like of which no other man hath suffered. Every single hair of Mine head calleth out that which the Burning Bush uttered 0n Sinai, and each vein of My body invoketh God and saith: “0 would I had been severed in T hy path, so that the

God Passes By, pp. 213—214. 3 Gleanings, pp. 117—118. ibid., p. 220. 4 ibid., pp. 99—100.

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world might be quickened, and all its peoples be united!” T hus hath it been decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All—Informed.1

THE LOVE OF GOD FOR HUMANITY

Consider to what extent the love of God makes itself manifest. Among the signs of His love which appear in the world are the dawning—points of His Manifestations. What an infinite degree of love is reflected by the divine Manifestations toward mankind! For the sake of guiding the people they have willingly forfeited their lives to resuscitate human hearts. T hey have accepted the cross. To enable human souls to attain the supreme

degree of advancement, they have suffered during their limitedyears extreme ordeals and difficulties.2

Observe how rarely human souls sacrifice their pleasure or comfort for others; how improbable that a man would ofi’er his eye or sufi’er himself to be dismembered for the benefit of another. Yet all the divine Manifestations suffered, oflered their lives and blood, sacrificed their existence, comfort and all they possessed for the sake of mankind. T herefore consider how much T hey love. Were it not for T heir love for humanity, spiritual love would be mere nomenclature. Were it not for T heir illumination, human souls would not be radiant. How effective is T heir love! This is a sign of the love of God; a ray of the Sun of Real ity.3

THE LOVE OF THE MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD

Nine days before His passing, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá gave a talk in His home in Haifa to some

Bahá’ís who had gathered there for a meeting With Him. These notes of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s address were taken down in Persian at that meeting and later translated:

3

His Holiness the Christ loved both His disciples and believers to such an extent that He sacrificed H is life for them. His Holiness the Supreme ( the Báb), loved the friends to such an extent that He gave His life for them. The Blessed Beauty (Bahá’u’lláh) loved the friends so much that for their sakes He accepted a thousand difficulties and afflictions. Four times He was exiled. He was banished from one place to another. His properties were confiscated. He gave all——His family, His relatives, His possessions. He accepted imprisonment, chains and fetters. His Holy Person was imprisoned in the fortress of ‘Akká. He was made to sufi’er more calamities, afflictions and difficulties than could be enumerated. He had not a moment’s rest. He had not an hour’s comfort. He was continually under the greatest hardships and ordeals. What greatpersecutions He endured from his enemies! What great afflictions He bore from His own relatives! He accepted all these trials for our sakes so that He might educate us, so that He might make us illumined, so that He might make us heavenly, so that He might change our character, change our lives, so that He might illumine our inmost self. All these troubles He accepted for our sakes. He did indeed sacrifice His life for us. This love is the real love. This is the inner attachment and the genuine friendship. This is the love which sacrifices one ’s all, one ’s life. This is the reality oflove...4

Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, pp. 52—53. 4 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “The Universal Language of the ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Foundations of World Unity (Wil— Spirit”, Star of the West, V01. VIII, no.7, October mette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1979), p. 89. 1922, pp. 163—164.

ibid., p. 90.

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N. THE PURPOSE OF BAHA’U’LLAH’S SUFFERlNG

T0 sanctify people from all earthly defilements

Say: We have accepted to be tried by ills and troubles, that ye may sanctifiv yourselves from all earthly defilements. Why, then, refuse ye to ponder Ourpurpose in your hearts? By the righteousness of God! Whoso will reflect upon the tribulations We have suffered, his soul will assuredly melt away with sorrow. The Lord Himself beareth witness to the truth of My words. We have sustained the weight of all calamities to sanctify you from all earthly corruption, and ye are yet indifferent.1

His Holiness Baha’u ’llah endured ordeals and hardships sixty years. T here was no persecution, vicissitude or sufi’ering He did not experience at the hand of His enemies and oppressors. All the days of His life were passed in difficulty and tribulation; at one time in prison, another in exile, sometimes in Chains. He willingly endured these difficulties for the unity of mankind, praying that the world of humanity might realize the radiance of

God, the oneness of humankind become a reality, strife and warfare cease and peace and tranquillity be realized by all. In prison He hoisted the banner of human solidarity, proclaiming Universal Peace, writing to the kings and rulers of nations summoning them to international unity and counselling arbitration...

T herefore we also must strive in this pathway of love and service, sacrificing life and possessions, passing our days in devotion, consecrating our efi’orts wholly to the cause of God, so that, God willing, the ensign of universal religion may be uplifted in the world of mankind and the oneness of the world of humanity be established.2

Briefly, this Wrongea’ One hath, in the face of all that hath befallen Him at their hands, and all that hath been said of Him, enduredpatiently, and held His peace, inasmuch as it is Our purpose, through the loving providence of God—exalted be His glory—and His surpassing mercy, to abolish, through the force of Our utterance, all disputes, war, and bloodshed, from the face of the earth. Under all conditions We have, in spite ofwhat they have said, endured with seemly patience, and have left them to God.3

Who can ever believe that this Servant of God hath at any time cherished in His heart a desire for any earthly honor or benefit? The Cause associated with His Name is far above the transitory things of this world. Behold Him, an exile, a victim of tyranny, in this Most Great Prison. His enemies have assailed Him on every side, and will continue to do so till the end of His life. Whatever, therefore, He saith unto you is wholly for the sake of God, that haply the peoples of the earth may cleanse their hearts from the stain of evil desire, may rend its veil asunder, and attain unto the knowledge of the one true God——the most exalted station to which any man can aspire. T heir belief or disbelief in My Cause can neither profit nor harm Me. We summon them wholly for the sake of God. He, verily, can aflord to dispense with all creatures.4

T hou hast known how grievously the Prophets of God, His Messengers and Chosen Ones, have been afflicted. Meditate a while on the motive and reason which have been responsible for such a persecution. At no time, in no Dispensation, have the Prophets of God

Gleanings, p. 307. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1976), pp. 230—231. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’í World Faith—Selectea’ Writ— 3 Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, p. 34. ings of Baht? ’u ’llah and 'Aba’u ’l—Baha (Wilmette: 4 Gleanings, p. 85.

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1

escaped the blasphemy of their enemies, the cruelty of their oppressors, the denunciation of the learned of their age, who appeared in the guise of uprightness and piety. Day and night they pasSed through such agonies as none can ever measure, except the knowledge of the one true God, exalted be His glory.1

Ponder a while on the woes and afflictions which this Prisoner hath sustained. I have, all the days of My life, been at the mercy of Mine enemies, and have suffered each day, in the path of the love of God, a fresh tribulation. I have patiently endured until the fame of the Cause of God was spread abroad on the earth...

It beseemeth all men, in this Day, to takefirm hold on the Most Great Name, and to establish the unity of all mankind. T here is no place to flee to, no refuge that any one can seek, except H im.2

0. SUMMARY OF THE PURPOSE OF ALL HIS SUFFERING

The Abhá Beauty Himself—may the spirit of all existence be offered up for His loved ones—bore all manner of ordeals, and willingly accepted for Himselfintense afflictions. No torment was there left that His sacredform was not subjected to, no suflering that did not descend upon Him. How many a night, when He was chained, did He go sleepless because of the weight of His iron collar; how many a day the burning pain of the stocks and fetters gave Him no moment’s peace. From Nz’yavaran to Tihran they made Him run—He, that embodied spirit, He Who had been accustomed to repose against cushions of ornamented silk—chainea’, shoeless, His head barea’; and down under the earth, in the thick darkness of that narrow dungeon, they shut H im up with murderers, rebels and thieves. Ever and again they assailed Him with a new torment, and all were certain that from one moment to the next He would safler a martyr’s death. After some time they banished H im from His native land, and sent H im to countries alien and far away. During many a year in ‘Iráq, no moment passed but the arrow of a new anguish struck His holy heart; with every breath a sword came down upon that sacred body, and He could hope for no moment of security and rest. From every side His enemies mounted their attack with unrelenting hate; and singly and alone He withstood them all. After all these tribulations, these body blows, they flung Him out of ‘Iráq in the continent of Asia, to the continent of Europe, and in that place of bitter exile, of wretched hardships, to the wrongs that were heaped upon Him by the people of the Qur’án were now added the virulent persecutions, the powerful attacks, the plottings, the slanders, the continual hostilities, the hate and malice, of the people of the Bayan. My pen is powerless to tell it all; but ye have surely been informed of it. T hen, after twenty—four years in this, the Most Great Prison, in agony and sore affliction, His days drew to a close.

To sum it up, the Ancient Beauty was ever, during His sojourn in this transitory world, either a captive bound with chains, or living under a sword, or subjected to extreme suffering ana’ torment, or held in the Most Great Prison. Because of His physical weakness, brought on by His afflictions, His blessed body was worn away to a breath; it was light as a cobweb from long grieving. And His reason for shouldering this heavy load and enduring all this anguish, which was even as an ocean that hurleth its waves to high

ibid., pp. 57-58. 2 ibid., p. 203.

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heaven—His reason for putting on the heavy iron chains and for becoming the very embodiment of utter resignation and meekness, was to lead every soul on earth to concord, to fellow-feelz'ng, t0 oneness; to make known amongst all peoples the sign of the singleness of God, so that at last the primal oneness deposited at the heart of all created things would bear its destinedfi‘uit, and the splendour of ‘No diflerence canst thou see in the creation of the God ofMercy, ’1 would cast abroad its rays.2

1 Qur’án 67:3 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1978), 2

‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of pp. 262—263.

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2. THE CONCEPT OF LAW IN THE BAHA’t FAITH AND THE LAW OF HUQUQU’LLAH

DR. AMiN BANANi

THE approaching confluence of two momentous events at the beginning of the Bahá’í Holy Year in Riḍván of 1992—publication of the translation of the Kitab-i-Aqdas, and the universal implementation of the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh—is an opportune time to reflect on the concept of law in the Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, and to View the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh in the light of that concept. It is understood that the purpose of Divine Laws is to aid humans to realize the goodness that is Within them and to curb the potential for lapses from that goodness which may also tempt them. The laws of Bahá’u’lláh are aimed at nothing short of a transformation of our nature.

Where would be a better place to begin our reflections on the concept of law in Bahá’u’lláh’s Revelation than the very opening passage in the Kitáb—i—Aqdas Where Bahá’u’lláh makes use of a beautiful poetic metaphor to describe the nature of His Laws. He says:

T hink not that We have revealed unto you a mere code of laws. Nay, rather, We have unsealed the choice Wine with the fingers of might and power.1

We may often pass over this passage simply moved by the beauty of the image or perhaps even perplexed by the intent of the metaphor, but it is, in fact, the key that Baha’u’llah has provided us for understanding the nature of His Laws.

What, we may ask, is the mere code of laws that Baha’u’llah disassociates Himself

1 Bahá’u’lláh, A Synopsis and Codification of the Laws and Ordinances of the Kitdb-i—Aqdas (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1973), frontispiece.

from? This is the concept of law in human societies from the beginning until now. We are obliged to use words that are familiar, words which have had certain connotations in the past; but Bahá’u’lláh intends to infuse them with new meanings; and it is for us to think and reflect on the nature of these new meanings and the key that He has given us.

All the words that we use in all languages to describe laws—in Arabic, for instance, we speak of hudi'ld (limits) or ahkam (commandments)—immediately bring to mind the image of those who live under those laws as people bound by them. The notion of laws as limits or commandments carries with it the corollary of those who are limited, commanded and forced to obey. Bahá’u’lláh tells us that His Laws are not like that at all. They are, rather, like the choice Wine.

That is indeed an interesting metaphor. It is not merely a poetic phrase. At the outset we may ask ourselves what is the function of choice Wine? and what is the relevance of this metaphor in the context of laws? On a very superficial level we may note that both in Islam and in the Bahá’í Faith ordinary wine is a substance forbidden by law. Obviously the metaphor is not to be understood on that superficial level. It is the impact produced by the choice Wine, the spiritual analogy of good strong wine, on the individual which is just the opposite of binding him with limits. It is true liberation. When you have imbibed of this choice Wine you are freed from inhibitions. Bahá’u’lláh tells us that His Laws are not intended to bind but to liberate us. That is the purpose of the key that He provides us in the opening of His Book of Laws.

From a talk given by Dr. Amin Banam’ at the Arabic Session of Landegg Academy, August 1991.

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When we think of it in that way we realize that we are Witnessing the dawn of a new phase of the spiritual evolution of the human race, a spiritual evolution that results in the transformation of human nature. It is within this evolutionary process that law ceases to be an external limit imposed upon us and begins to be a liberating energy arising from Within us.

Bahá’u’lláh intends for us that His Laws become a self—generated part of our conscience to protect us from lapses. By freeing us from our baser motives it bestows true liberty upon us. This is not to say that human nature, which has the potential of achieving perfection, is necessarily perfect at all times. For this reason the Kitáb-i-Aqdas delineates categories of wrongdoing and specifies punishments for them. But When it comes to motivations for avoiding these lapses, it is always based on the spiritual strength and moral stamina of the individual. Protection is built from within, not by erecting walls without. Should we fail to grasp this novel concept of law as an instrument of liberation rather than limitation, Baha’u’llah states in that same opening passage of the Most Holy Book that the primary agent for the enforcement of His Laws is not fear of the consequences, but the love of His beauty: “Observe My commandments, for the love of My beauty.”

Those of us Who by accident of birth and mother tongue or acquired second language have had access to the Kitáb-i-Aqdas for nearly a century, have been trying to live up to its commandments, not so much out of a deep and full understanding of their purpose and implications but for the love of His Beauty. And now the Universal House of Justice is on the verge of promulgating one of these laws which some of us have been observing for the love of His beauty, as the universal and loving obligation of the entire Bahá’í world. Noting the desire of the entire Bahá’í community to share in the blessing of the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh, the House of Justice has asked us to educate and prepare

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ourselves for the universal observance of this Sacred Law. This education is not just for the western friends who did not observe it before. It is for all of us, eastern and western, to acquire a deeper and more mature understanding of this Law.

While looking at the implications of this Law as a liberating force, we should also keep in mind that none of the Laws of Baha’u’llah stand in a vacuum in isolation from the others. They are all part of an integrated fabric, the ultimate purpose of Which is building the World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. All of His Lawswand the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh is no exception—are building materials for raising the edifice of His World Order.

Also, as in many of the other Laws of Bahá’u’lláh, there is more than one aspect to the Law of Huqfiqu’lláh. There is the purely personal aspect which has to do with purification of our motives and the spiritualization of our mundane cares and concerns. The other aspect has to do with binding the body of humanity in a fair and equitable way. In a beautiful phrase in the Riḍván 1991 message of the Universal House of Justice, the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh is referred to as “a profoundly private act of conscience that promotes the common good.” The two aspects are, of course, integral and inseparable. Because our attention is usually drawn to the personal blessings With not much attention given to the public benefits of this Law, here we may reflect more on the “common good”.

In a,‘ beautiful and profound Tablet,1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá likens the whole of human society to the human body. The cooperation, collaboration and balance among the limbs and organs of the human body that are necessary for its health and well-being, He asserts, are the same as interdependence and equitable relationships within the entire human family, and Ḥuqúqu’lláh is a means of achieving that balance.

1 Huqliqu ’lláh, Compilation by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1985), pp. 14—15.

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Ḥuqúqu’lláh is a major instrument that Bahá’u’lláh has given us for achievement of economic justice and a more equitable distribution of wealth. Narrowing the tragic and dangerous gap that exists between the few rich and many poor of this world is an urgent need of our time. If not out of altruism, then out of enlightened self—interest even the rich nations of the world are groping for ways to reduce this gap. But the obsolete barriers of the old world order have so far made all such efforts futile.

In contrast, at this embryonic stage of emergence of the Bahá’í world community the channel for a meaningful beginning of redistribution of wealth is already in place in the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh. To have but one example of this fact it is enough to reflect that out of more than one hundred and fifty national Bahá’í communities in the world today, perhaps fewer than ten percent are financially self—supporting. The rest—and those are communities with the largest Bahá’í populations, the most dynamic teaching activities, and most important of all, the most active projects for social and economic development~depend on generous, wellcoordinated and sustained financial support from the Universal House of Justice.

In the same Riḍván 1991 message of the Universal House of Justice we come across another profound phrase describing Ḥuqúqu’lláh as the Law “...which directly connects the individual believer with the Central Institution of the Faith. . ..”

In describing the structure of the Administrative Order of our Faith we often make use of the form of a pyramid, with the Local Spiritual Assemblies at the base, the National Spiritual Assemblies in the intermediate place and the Universal House of Justice at the apex of the pyrainid. Now if we try to think of the connection of the individual Bahá’í to this pyramid of authority we realize that some of us are elected to various Local Spiritual Assemblies and thus connected to that structure of authority. Far fewer are elected to the National Spiritual

Assemblies, and only an infinitesimal number ever have the honor of serving on the Universal House of Justice. And as the Bahá’í population of the world grows, the percentage of those who are elected to serve on the different levels of that pyramid will become smaller and smaller. So the direct connection of the individual to the source of authority in the Faith becomes more and more occasional and infinitesimal except in observance of the Law of Huququ’lláh, where every individual has the continuous privilege of sustaining the very apex of the pyramid. Baha’u’llah has given us the charter for His new World Order, created the institutions for governance of the Bahá’í world, and in the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh, He has legislated a regular and continuous source of revenue for the worldwide operation of the supreme authority of His Faith. We may think of it, therefore, as a global tax for the benefit of the global authority in the Faith. This limited analogy to taxation is both instructive and eye-opening. We know a good deal about the history of taxation in human societies and, sad to say, much of it is indistinguishable from extortion. Even in the more democratic societies where taxes are approved by the elected representatives of the people, and where the generality of the public recognizes the need for taxation for its own protection, no tax system can be upheld without the strong arm of the law to enforce it. Where does the power of enforcement of Ḥuqúqu’lláh reside? Only in the innermost depth of our own conscience. As we contemplate the enormity of this fact we begin to realize the concrete reality behind that otherwiSe platitudinous sounding phrase which we often pass over: “spiritual solutions for economic problems.” What kind of tax system is this that requires a “profoundly private act of conscience” for its enforcement? It places a premium upon spiritual growth and maturation and not upon raising of revenue. The impetus for spiritual growth does not end with the private assumption of responsibility for upholding the law. Bahá’u’lláh

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adds a further condition to that act of private conscience, and that has to do with a certain spiritual attitude. That is the attitude of joyful and radiant acquiescence. If we do not have it, He tells us, we are not ready to observe the Law. Here is another important difference between Ḥuqúqu’lláh and other systems of taxation: if in calculation of our Ḥuqúqu’lláh obligation we look for loopholes, we have not yet achieved that degree of spiritual maturity that Baha’u’llah wishes for us, and in a sense we are not yet qualified to observe the Law. This is another demonstration of “spiritual solutions for economic problems.”

Baha’u’llah is asking of us nothing less than a complete reversal of habitual human behavior when it comes to payment of Huqfiqu’lláh. Payment of taxes has often been accompanied by coercion, reluctance and avoidance. Bahá’u’lláh makes Huqfiqu’lláh voluntary, j oyful and radiant. It was Benjamin Franklin who spoke of two unavoidable calamities by saying you cannot escape death and taxes. We are already familiar with Baha’u’llah’s utterance in The Hidden Words that, “I have made death a messenger ofjoy to thee... ”1 Now we learn that taxes too are to be paid with joy.

The transforming power and the liberating influence of the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh is as yet dimly experienced by us. It is a Law that is a test of firmness in the Covenant, and a joyful way of building the strong fabric of the World Order of Bahá’u’lláh.

As we approach the universal implementation of the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh, often the question is asked by the friends about the relationship of Ḥuqúqu’lláh to other Funds in the Faith. The answers are, of course, fully given in the Compilation from the Writings of Baha’u’llah, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice, and the priority of Ḥuqúqu’lláh is clearly

I Bahá’u’lláh, The Hidden Words of Bahá’u’lláh (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1979), Arabic, #32: p. 11.

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established. Huqfiqu’lláh is a portion of our wealth which by God’s Law is His Right. We simply return it to Him. What is required of us in discharge of our Huqt'lqu’lláh obligation is accountability and trustworthiness. What we give to the other Funds is out of our own substance, summoned by our sense of generosity and sacrifice.

The difference between Ḥuqúqu’lláh and the other Funds can best be illustrated by the difference between the Daily Obligatory Prayer and the wealth of all the other prayers and meditations that we have available to us. We are free, indeed strongly urged, to enrich and sanctify our lives with frequent recourse to those prayers; but they do not take the place of the Daily Obligatory Prayer. One is a legal obligation, the other a moral obligation, if we remember the nature of Baha’u’llah’s Laws in the first place.

If in calculation of our Ḥuqúqu’lláh obligation we wish to count our contributions to the other Funds as part of our ‘needful’ expenses, the House of Justice has told us that we may do so. But it should be inconceivable that those contributions should rule out the discharge of our Ḥuqúqu’lláh obligation in the same sense that it is inconceivable that saying of constant prayers should leave us no time to perform our Daily Obligatory Prayer.

Another question that often comes up in our educational gatherings and must be on the minds of many friends has to do with the timing of the universal implementation of the Law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh in Riḍván 1992. Is it because of the unusual need for financial resources at this time when the Are on Mount Carmel is being completed? The answer is both yes and no without any equivocation and contradiction. It is yes in the sense that already for the last hundred years the preponderant share of the funds needed for all the development and expansion of our World Centre has been provided by Huql'lqu’lláh, and the completion of the Arc will be no exception. But if we think that the universal implementation of the Law of

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Huqfiqu’lláh is merely another exigent fundraising device to meet the current needs at the World Centre, then we are completely missing the point, and the answer is emphatically no. This Arc will be built and completed in a short time, but the Law of

THE Bahá’í WORLD

Huql'lqu’lláh Will continue to build and invigorate and reinforce the World Order of Bahá’u’lláh for centuries and centuries to come, and will be an integrated part of the power and authority of the Universal House of Justice.

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3. INTERDEPENDENCE OF BAHA’t COMMUNITIESSERVICES OF NORTH AMERICAN BAHA’t WOMEN TO IRAN

BY BAHARIEH ROUHANI MA‘ANI

INTRODUCTION

“All men have been created to carry forward an ever—advancing civilization.”1 At the heart of such a civilization is the spiritual, economic and social well-being of humanity. Religion has no claim to validity and cannot make progress if it is without concern for spiritual health, economic development, and improvement in social conditions.

The amount of time needed to make meaningful change depends on several factors. The power of the creative Word, the

generating influence of the spiritual forces released, the receptivity of the people, the commitment of the followers of the new creed to champion the cause of change, the availability of means, and the nature and timeliness of activities undertaken all play a crucial role. This article presents the findings of a study of North American women’s espousal of the Bahá’í Faith and their response to the social needs of their Iranian coreligionists.

THE SPREAD OF THE BAHA’I’ FAITH IN AMERICA

The Name of Bahá’u’lláh was first mentioned publicly in North America in 1893.2 This was one year after Bahá’u’lláh had passed away in what was then Palestine, and His eldest son, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, had been appointed as Baha’u’llah’s successor and the Centre of the Covenant. The first American follower of Baha’u’llah, Thornton Chase, embraced the Bahá’í Faith in Chicago in 1894.

The swift spread of the Bahá’í Faith to the West was due not only to the applicability of its message, but also to the needs of the time and the availability of means of communication and travel. The need for a fresh spiritual stimulus was strongly felt in

1 Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanz‘ngs from the Writings of Bahd ’11 71611 (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1983), p. 215.

2 A missionary based in Syria, in a session of the World’s Parliament of Religions held in Chicago on

the nineteenth century. Baha’u’llah’s enunciation, in the latter half of that century, of teachings and laws to unite humankind in a common cause, provided the focus. His advent renewed hopes of salvation and released spiritual forces needed to prepare the way for establishing universal peace. After Thornton Chase, many receptive souls entered the Faith, including a number of prominent women. Some of them sought ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s permission and embarked upon a historical voyage to ‘Akká, His place of exile in Palestine. Their intention was twofold: first, to make a pilgrimage to the land where the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá’í Faith spent the last twenty-five years

23 Sept. 1893, quoted in his speech words that Bahá’u’lláh had spoken to Edward G. Browne in 1891. E.G. Browne was the only orientalist granted an interview with Bahá’u’lláh. The interview took place in Bahá’u’lláh’s place of exile in ‘Akká.

This essay, revised for inclusion in the international record, originally appeared in The Journal ofBahd ’1' Studies,

vol. 4,110.1, May 1991.

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of His life and where He is buried; and, second, to meet ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and partake of His divine wisdom. Their arrival in the Holy Land in 1898 signalled the dawn of the

THE Bahá’í WORLD

process of integration of the East and the West—a process which evolved and entailed many significant developments and undertakings.

EARLY AMERICAN Bahá’í WOMEN WHO RENDERED OUTSTANDING SERVICE TO IRAN

Louisa A. Moore (Lua Getsinger)

Among the first group of pilgrims was Lua Getsinger. She was in love with the Faith she had espoused and wished to devote her life to its service. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá saw in her the potential to undertake and accomplish great tasks. He nurtured her zeal and enthusiasm, and provided her with spiritual guidance and momentum. Her intense love for Baha’u’llah’s Revelation and her selfless way of conveying Bahá’í teachings to others made her a remarkable teacher of the Faith. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá surnamed her Livd (Banner) and Ummu’l—Mu ’mim’n (Mother of the

Lua Getsinger, whom ‘Abdu’l-Bahá named “Livé” (Banner), and “Ummu’l—Mu’minin” (Mother of the Believers).

Believers). Shoghi Effendi called her “the mother teacher of the West”, and designated her as one of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Disciples.1

Through her efforts other women in the West, such as Phoebe Hearst and May Ellis Bolles, “the mother teacher of Europe,” embraced the Faith and rendered outstanding service.

Lua Getsinger was chosen by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to undertake an important mission on behalf of her co~re1igionists in Tran—the first service of its kind undertaken by a Western believer. In 1902 she was sent to meet Muzaffari’d—Din §_hah, the fiah of Train, during his second Visit to Paris,2 to acquaint him and his Prime Minister, Mirza ‘Ali Asg_har Qén—i—Atabak, with the situation of the oppressed Bahá’í community in Train, to seek restitution of Bahá’í rights, and to appeal for justice on their behalf. The Iranian Bahá’í community had been persecuted since its inception. The Muslim clerical class had used every opportunity to incite the population against the Bahá’ís, and the government had often condoned the maltreatment of the Bahá’ís by the fanatics. ‘Abdu’l—B aha saw the time as propitious, the place favourable, and the personality of Lua fit for the task He wanted undertaken.

1 A title of distinction given to specific believers who rendered outstanding services to the Bahá’í Faith during the ministry of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.

2 A meeting with a sovereign who enj oyed absolute power over the inhabitants of the country he ruled by a member of the female sex, regarded as inferior and unworthy in Muslims’ eyeswespecially one who had espoused a religion unrecognized and persecuted in iran—was a unprecedented event. The envoy previously sent by Bahá’u’lláh to present His Epistle to Nasiri’d-Din Shéh, the grandfather and predecessor of Muzaffari’d—Din Shéh, had been brutally tortured and put to death. He was a seventeen—year—old youth, entitled Badi‘ (Wonderful).

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Mustafa Khan (left) looking at (from left to right). MISS Lzllian Kappes, Dr. Sarah Clock, and Dr. Susan Moody, with a woman named Táhirih Kfianum in Tihran, Iran, circa 1912.

Lua received the necessary instructions and set out to accomplish the mission. She secured an appointment through the Persian Embassy in Paris, then wrote a petition in English and had it translated into French by a notable French Bahá’í, Hippolyte Dreyfus. Accompanied by Dreyfus, she met With the Sháh in the grand reception ha11 of the Elysées Palace Hotel, where the King and his entourage were staying in September 1902. She was greeted with kindness and couitesy, and received favorable responses to her petitions.1 However, subsequent events in flan show that very litt1e practical improvement was made in the treatment of Bahá’ís for a number ofreasons.1s1am was, as now, the state religion; the clerical class was in ascendancy; and the government’s interests dictated its compliance with? the desires of the clergy. The requirements of social justice were, therefore, overshadowed by the self—seeking interests of the authorities and ecclesiastics. But Lua’s mission served one important purpose: the truth of

1 Star offlze West, V01.XV, no.8 (Nov. 1921), p. 231. ‘

the situation of the Bah”is in 1ran was laid before the King and his Prime Minister. They could no longer use ignorance of facts as an excuse for their inaction to redress the injustices inflicted upon the Bahá’ís. Hence, a task inconceivable in 11am was accomplished. An official petition on behalf of the Iranian Bahá’í community was made to its temporal ruler by an ardent American female Baha1"

Lua Getsinger submitted a second petition to the Shah, through official channels in 1903, when disturbances in 11an claimed the lives of several Bahá’ís in Yazd, Iṣfahán, and other places. In that petition she said: “And be assured that this Light will never be extinguished, even should you permit the blood of the Bahá’ís to run in rivers throughout your land, for it is evident that the blood of the Persian Bahá’ís is but the oil Which has fed and will feed the flame in the Lamp of the Cause of Baha’u ’llah.. ”2 This petition produced some relief, and for several years the persecutions ceased.

2 ibid.,p. 233.

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Dr. Susan Moody—Amatu’l-A‘ld (Handmaid of the Most High)

The initiation of development projects in lran goes back to the early years of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s ministry. The Bahá’í community in Tihran established a boys’ school in 1900; later a group of doctors came together to set up a hospital. A female doctor was needed to treat the female patients, who could not be examined by male physicians. When a group of Bahá’ís from the United States Visited Train in 1908:

...some Iranian doctors asked if it would

be possible to induce an American

woman doctor to come to Ṭihrán, Train, to live, for the purpose of caring for the women of Train who at that time were so deprived of skilled medical care. Stopping in ‘Akká, Palestine, on their return, the Americans communicated this Wish to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá who asked them if they knew of such a doctor. The name of

Dr. Moody was presented, and she received

word without delay from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá

telling her she had been chosen for this great medical work in Train. “I knew then,” Dr. Moody often remarked, “why

I had felt the urge so strongly to study

medicine; I was obliged to study medi cine in order to come to lrén.” When the call came from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, she proceeded immediately on herjourney.1

Susan Moody was born on 20 November 1851 in Amsterdam, New York. She became a Bahá’í in 1903 after making an in-depth study of the tenets of the Faith with Isabella Brittingham, one of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Disciples in the West. She had first studied music, painting and sculpture, but had later switched to medicine. She had graduated from a medical college in Chicago.

The same spirit of Willing obedience which characterized Lua Getsinger’s unqualified response to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s instruction prompted Susan Moody to respond to His

1 The Bahá’í World, vol.VI (1934—1936) (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980), p. 483.

THE BAHA’l WORLD

appeal without hesitation. She arranged her affairs and left for Tran in November 1909. In Tihran, she joined the team of Bahá’í doctors who had established a hospital called Sihat. The Vital services Dr. Moody provided to the community of lran were acknowledged in the following notice and editorial, published in a newspaper in Tihran. It reads: Doctor Moody—wAmerican lady——Not only does she know medicine, but also gynecology, obstetrics and women’s diseases. Her good qualities and kind attributes, her love for her Persian oriental sisters, are all equal. Every day from morning till noon she is in her office, No. 10 Avenue Aladauleh, receiving her patients for consultation, examination and treatment, excepting Friday and Sunday afternoons, when she goes to the Hospital Sehat (Hospital of Health), where she meets the patients of the higher and wealthier class.2 The editorial reads: We give the utmost thanks and gratitude to such a noble woman, to such a respected person, whose presence here is a great privilege to the country of Persia. On account of the great care of this blessed person, the sick of all nationalities, moslems, et al., become healthy and well. We beg of God to keep this blessed and respected person with us.3 Dr. Moody’s services in Ṭihrán were not confined to the medical field. She worked closely with Bahá’í women who were eager to improve their lot, encouraging them in their quest for emancipation and equality, and lending them effective help to achieve their objectives. She recognized the need to educate women if change of a permanent nature was to be realized, and did all she could to bring about the establishment of a formal Bahá’í girls’ school, similar to the Tarbiyat Boys’ School that had been established in 1900.

7- Star,vol. 1,110.15 (20 August 1910), p. 9. 3 ibid.

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Those genuinely concerned with the education of Iranian Bahá’í children had tried for some time to raise money to establish a formal girls’ school in the capital, but the needs of the boys’ school and the lack of sufficient means had delayed its realization. Their efforts were augmented by the endeavors of the American Bahá’ís, particularly the women, who met the challenge of providing financial assistance and qualified personnel.

In January 1910 the Persian—American Educational Society was established in the United States, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. Approved by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, it was an attempt to streamline cooperative enterprises between the two countries. One of the services it provided was financial assistance to ensure the continued functioning of the Tarbiyat Boys’ School, which was experiencing financial difficulty. The secretary Of the Society wrote in his first report:

On account of the political conditions and general demoralization of internal affairs, the founders of this school, before that time men of means, found themselves unable to continue its activities because of lack of funds. .. As an outcome of the interest manifested, and considering the greater needs of the East, as well as the opportunity for a Bahá’í demonstration from the West to the Orient, this Society was formed.1

As the Persian—American Educational Society evolved, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá encouraged its basic aims and gave the members insights to see things in a different light. The Tablet of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, dated 3 April 1910, addressed to Officers of the Society, reads in part:

According to the reports...in these days

the Persian—American Educational Soc iety is organized in America and the friends of God and the maid—servants of the Merciful with the utmost zeal and enthusiasm are engaged in the solidarity of this Society. If possible, change the

1 Star, V01. l,no.5 (5 June 1910), p. 2.

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‘ :15 Dr. Susan Moody in Tihran, fi'dn, with two young children, circa 1912.

name of this Society to Persian—American Interdependence Society so that in the future it may include all points, such as commerce, industry and education so that spiritual and material results and benefits might be produced.2 And in another Tablet ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote: The believers of God must give great importance to this Society and arise to perform its fundamental principles and essential duties with heart and 30111.... Persia and America are in great need of such a Society, even to matters pertaining to material relations between these two countries, especially America. . ..3 Later in his address to the Orient-Occident Unity Conference held in Washington, DC, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá said: May the material civilization of America find complete efficacy and establishment in Persia, and the spiritual civilization of Persia find acceptance and response in

2 ibid., p. 4. 3 ibid.

[Page 1096]1096 THE Bahá’í WORLD

America... May they become one race endowed with the same susceptibilities. May these bonds of amity and accord be firmly established. . .. I have traveled this long distance, crossed the Atlantic Ocean to this western continent in the desire and hope that the strongest bond of unity may be established between America and Persia. . .. May this, American democracy be the first nation to establish the foundation of international agreement. May it be the first nation to proclaim the universality of mankind. May it be the first to upraise the standard of the “Most Great Peace,” and through this nation of democracy may these philanthropic intentions and institutions be spread broadcast throughout the world.1 A new era of cooperation, based on spiritual principles, had begun. Development projects and cooperative ventures between the Bahá’í communities of North America and Train translated the principle of unity of the Bahá’í world into practice. The interdependence of the East and the West in both spiritual and material matters grew steadily and yielded remarkable results. In February 1910 Dr. Moody wrote to the American Bahá’ís and conveyed the joyous news: The girls’ school is assured. They will start with accommodations for fifty pupils. Please te11 any who want to help that it will take only $1.50 per month to educate a girl. There are many here too poor to pay and this is the way to help lift Persia from her otherwise hopeless condition. . ..2 As soon as the establishment of a girls’ school became a reality, Dr. Moody helped the Iranian friends to secure the services of a qualified American Bahá’í teacher to take charge of the school and ensure its proper functioning and development. At her suggestion Lilian Kappes took up the challenge. We will later learn of Miss Kappes’s services in Train. The development of the

1 Star, vol. XV, no. 8 (November 1924), p. 235—236. 2 Star, V01. 1, no. 2 (9 April 1910),p. 11.

girls’ school was initially very slow.

The 1913 report of the Executive Secretary of the Persian—American Educational Society, based on Dr. Moody’s submission, offers an interesting analysis regarding subsidized education. First of all, it shows that the friends and institutions in Tran, despite economic difficulties, were providing some financial help. Second, it shows that the girls’ school was still held in a rented place. Third, it indicates that Dr. Moody herself offered generous financial assistance not only towards the education of Bahá’í children in Ṭihrán, but also to non—Bahá’í educational institutions. Finally, the report provided a list of the children sponsored by the friends and Assemblies in the United States. Of the 77 names listed, 18 were girls and 59 boys. The sponsors consisted of 18 Assemblies, 3 couples, and 67 individuals: 45 women and 22 men.3

In July 1915, Dr. Moody informed the

Society in the United States of the

creation of a building fund. The plan was

to set aside “any margin which may accrue after deducting from the scholarship fund of $18.00 per annum, the actual expenses of tuition, books, etc. To this will be added such special amounts as the

American friends may contribute from

time to time.”4 Her letter stated “This

year nine of the American boy pupils received sixth grade certificates from the university. In all forty—three boys passed.

From the Girls’ Tarbiet, twelve girls

received the same certificate. We are very

proud of them, as they have had so few years of preparation.”5

Other American Bahá’í women went to Train and served in different capacities. These women joined with Dr. Moody and other interested people in the country to ensure that the young girls received Bahá’í education, similar to that provided to the boys.

3 Star, vol. IV,no.13 (9 November 1913),p.221-—223. 4 Star, vol.VI,n0.7 (13 July 1915), p. 54. 5 ibid.

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Women Sitting, from left: Lillian Kappes, Muchul Ianum, Dr. Susan Moody, Dr. Sarah Clock and Elizabeth Steward; with four children and a maidservant, Tihrcin, Irdn, 0.1912.

In May 1914, Dr. Moody reported: We have established twelve centres for teaching girls the foundation principles of the Bahá’í Revelation—the teachers met on Saturday last. In about a month we will hold a large meeting for examining the various centers. The boys have had similar classes for three years and their examination this year was a great success.1 The presence of American Bahá’ís in a country where women had no voice in the decision-making process served another valuable purpose. They provided the examples of how women could become assertive and claim their God-given rights. The Iranian Bahá’í women gradually began to ask questions. When their petitions for equal treatment remained unanswered, they wrote to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and complained. It is unfortunate that the texts of such petitioning letters are not available, but from the contents of the responses they received one can gain insight into the women’s appeals:

1 Star, vol. V, no. 5 (5 June 1914), p. 74.

The establishment of a women’s assemblage for the promotion of knowledge is entirely acceptable, but discussions must be confined to educational matters. It should be done in such a way that differences will, day by day, be entirely wiped out, not that, God forbid, it will end in argumentation between men and women. Now the World of women should be a spiritual world, not a political one, so that it will be radiant. .. I am endeavoring, with Bahá’u’lláh’s confirmations and assistance so to improve the world of the handmaidens that all will be astonished. . .. Ye need to be calm and composed, so that the work? will proceed with Wisdom, otherwise there will be such chaos that ye will leave everything and run away. “This newly born babe is traversing in one night the path that needeth a hundred years to tread.” In brief, ye should now engage in matters of pure spirituality and not contend with men. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá will tactfully take appropriate steps. Be assured. In the end thou wilt thyself exclaim, “This was indeed supreme

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’3 !

wisdom I appeal to you to obliterate

this contention between men and women.

No one can on his own achieve any , thing. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá must be well pleased and assist.1

Two points in the above Tablet attract attention. First is the emphasis on the word m. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says: “1333 the world of women should be a spiritual world, not a political one. . .” and “ye should n_ow engage in matters of pure spirituality and not contend with men.” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá kneW—had in fact said in other contexts—that in time women would have to enter the “political world” if they were to attain their equality with men, but the time was not propitious then. The second point is the need for “wisdom” which prompted ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s appeal to the women.

Parallel with His appeals to the women, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá sent Tablets to the community in general promoting the principle of the equality of the sexes, emphasizing the importance of educating the women and explaining the benefits thereof. Here one can discern ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s wisdom in neither overruling the men abruptly, nor immediately granting the women’s petitions, even though these actions were within the scope of His authority and in line with the principle of equality prescribed by Baha’u’llah. In one Tablet ‘Abdu’l-Bahá appealed to the women not to press for equality at a time when the Faith was making progress, saying that pressing for equality at that time would hamper the advancement of the Cause and paralyze its institutions. He was fully aware of the men’s fierce resistance to equality at that early stage in the development of the Cause. He had sent them living examples of what educated women could do and intended to continue the practice until the goal was realized.

Dr. Moody served in iran for more than twenty—five years, broken by one nearly

1 Women, (1 C0171pilation. Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of J ustice (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990), p. 5.

four-year visit to the United States. She ended her Visit and left to return to him late in 1928, in response to the expressed Wish of Shoghi Effendi: I pray that you may soon in the company of a capable and devoted American coworker, resume your historic labors for our beloved Cause in Tihran.2 Susan Moody was 77 years old when she went back to iran. She traveled in the company of Adelaide Sharp, visiting Haifa, Palestine, on the way, and conferring with Shoghi Effendi. She spent the remaining years of her life in iran, dying in Tihran on 23 October 1934. Her funeral, attended by several hundred Bahá’ís, was a testimony to the inestimable esteem in which her highly prized services were held by the friends; it was a magnificent mark of honor for a person to whom the Bahá’í community felt eternally indebted. Shoghi Effendi’s cable to the friends in the United States reveals the worth of her services: Passing dearly beloved Susan Moody deprives Bahá’í world (of the) far-famed pioneer who, through her indomitable spirit, ceaseless services, earned unique distinction. (She) forged first link in (the) chain uniting (the) spiritual destinies (of the) cradle of our faith (i.e., Persia) and (the) community (of its) stalwart defenders in (the) great American Republic. (1 am) instructing Persia rear monument perpetuating memory (of) her noble mission. (I) am g1ad1y defraying whatever expense incurred as token (of) my admiration for community (i.e., America) to which she originally belonged and on which her sacred life shed imperishable lustre. Advise holding befitting Memorial gathering (in) Temple Foundation Hall.3 111 a message to the National Spiritual Assembly of iran dated 12 November 1934, Shoghi Effendi said Susan Moody excelled those of her kind in faith and certitude. He referred to the projects she had initiated as

2 The Balzd’z’ World, VOLVI (1934—36), p. 486. 3 . . 1b1d.

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examples worthy of emulation by others and gave the glad-tidings that the Bahá’ís in America would follow in her footsteps and would hasten to the sacred land of Train, would continue her undertakings, and would engage in the praise and commendation of her luminous and extensive services.1

Lillian F. Kappes

One of the receptive souls in the West who enlisted under the banner of Bahá’u’lláh before the turn of the century was Lillian F. Kappes. She was a teacher by profession, and became a Bahá’í in New York in 189899. She met ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Thonon-lesBains on Lake Geneva in October 1911, when she was on her way to Train in response to a request for a competent female Bahá’í to serve as the principal as well as teacher of the first Bahá’í girls’ school in Tihran.

In early 1911, the Bahá’ís in Tihran had appealed to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá for assistance from the West in the form of educators. The request had been approved, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá had revealed a Tablet asking the Bahá’ís in the United States to:

...select a woman teacher who may fill the position of principal as well as teacher, and send her without delay. The woman must have a Share of the knowledge of sciences and be proficient in woman’s work, such as sewing, housekeeping, hygiene and household economics, etc.2

This passage of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Tablet reflects the nature of the petition in response to which the Tablet was revealed, and indicates the perceived needs of the Persian women at the time, society’s expectations of them, and the influence of tradition on the Bahá’í community’s list of priorities when women’s secular education was first addressed. It also shows the high expectations that people had of women teachers. In the same Tablet ‘Abdu’l-Bahá asked for a

1 Shoghi Effendi, T aqu’ ‘dt—i-Mubdrakz‘h 19224948 (Ṭihrán: Bahá’í Publishing Committee of the National Assembly oflrén, 130 13.13.), (pp. 12am.

2 Star, vol. 11, no.1 (21 March 1911), p. 6.

1099

male teacher for the Tarbiyat Boys’ School. The nature of the request reveals the vast difference between the curriculum of the boys” school and the one for girls:

They have written from Tihran that there

is need of a scientific teacher for the

School of Tarbiat. He must be efficient in

science as well as the English language;

for at present there is no man in the

School of Tarbiat who is a scientist or lin guist. They are in need of both, science

and the English language. . . .3

Before the arrival of Miss Kappes, some Bahá’í women in Tihran had responded to the educational needs of girls by initiating private projects on a small scale. With ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s constant encouragement and guidance, and Dr. Moody’s perseverance and assistance, the education of girls was finally institutionalized. The Bahá’í girls’ school, although operating under the auspices of an existing all-male Education Committee, was run competently by Lillian F. Kappes. She became the women’s spokesperson with regard to their educational needs and served as liaison between them and the Committee.

It is apparent from the following that, after ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s approval was sought, the friends in Tran specifically requested Miss Kappes’s services:

Word has come from Dr. Moody that

the Ṭihrán Board of Consultation has sup plicated ‘Abclu’l—Bahá that Miss Lillian

Kappes might be permitted to come to

that city to teach in the Girls’ Bahá’í

School....4

Lillian Kappes arrived in Train in October 1911. Her first report, dated 19 December stated: '

After the first week of almost incessant

calling or meeting of friends at special

gatherings, I began my work in the main boys’ school and took charge of the girls’ school... I give the highest class in the

3 ibid. 4 Star, vol. 1, no. 7 (13 July 1910), p. 14.

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Miss Lillian Kappes with boys in a class that she was teaching at the T arbiyat School in

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t > X

Ṭihrán, frdn, circa 1912.

boys’ school. The boys have had several years of English, so my work there is easier, but the girls’ school was only started last spring and of the three classes of girls I teach only the highest has had instruction in English. .. The native teachers here are lovely women but have never been educated themselves, except the directress who learned or studied fifteen years ago in the mission school here. So the work is seriously handicapped and my hands are full, indeed. But during the three months, or, rather ten weeks, I have been here, we are slowly evolving into some show of system.1 She went to 11am intellectually aware of the plight of women in that country, of the domination of men over all affairs including that of women’s education, and of the derogatory manner in which women were treated even within the nascent Bahá’í community. Her meeting with ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Thonon had to some degree prepared her, but despite her readiness to meet the challenge, the

1 Star, vol. 11,110. 18 (7 February 1912), pp. 12-13.

seemingly insurmountable obstacles and the resultant stress she experienced threatened her health. Initially, the school had been established as a department of the boys’ school and the Education Committee was principally concerned with the needs of the boys. A letter sent by Dr. Sarah Clock in 1916 to some of the Bahá’í women in the United States described the situation: Yesterday Miss K.(Kappes) was simply abused by the meeting of 5 men, came home in perfect nervous collapse & was awake all night from sheer nervousness & worry. .. Not long ago a Tablet came to a Persian here praising Miss K & her work in the school. .. she has the moral support of many of the best men, all the women who in an excited meeting all stood by her. ...if Miss Kappes were not a Bahai or not less than a saint she would not have put up with all she has, for five years her hands have been tied, that is they have not allowed her to use her own advanced ideas as to a school... some of the good men are entirely with her. They offer to

[Page 1101]LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS

open another school for her & several of

the nicest of the girls will teach for noth ing.1

‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s loving advice and encouragement, conveyed through his Tablets revealed in honor of those who were concerned with the situation, and Lillian Kappes’s own perseverance finally reaped results. A society was formed in Tihran to oversee the education of both the girls and the boys. Although the society’s membership was all male, the men worked with Miss Kappes and followed her suggestions “even in the working of the boys school where she taught English until last year when they permitted her to devote all her time to the girls. . ..”2

Lillian Kappes’ devotion and conscientious services to the cause of women’s education were decisive factors in the success of the girls’ school. The project had started on a very modest scale, initially with only between thirty and fifty pupils, but by the time it was closed by the government it had seven hundred and fifty Bahá’í and non-Bahá’í students, and it was considered the best girls’ school in Iran.

Lillian Kappes’ struggles in Iran lasted for nine years. In 1920 she contracted typhoid, which claimed her life. She died in Tihran and became the first Western believer to die in active Bahá’í service in Iran. Shoghi Effendi later designated her as one of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Disciples. In the report of her Visit with ‘Abdu’l—B aha, Lillian Kappes said “He iterated and reiterated: ‘I am sending you to Persia that you may serve in Persia, so that all the friends and all the people will praise you.”’4 The educational

1 Quoted in Smith, Peter, In It'dn, Studies in Bdbz' and Bahá’í' History, vol. 3 (Los Angeles: Kalimét Press, 1986), p. 190.

2 Studies, vol. 111, pp. 190491.

3 Bahá’í schools in him were closed on all Bahá’í holy days. The government refused to recognize the Bahá’í Faith and would not tolerate the observance of Bahá’í holy days. The authorities used this as an excuse to order the closure of all Bahá’í schools in 1934.

1101

fund that she had established for the school continued after her death as the “Lillian Kappes Memorial Fund” and helped in the expansion of the school.

Sarah Clock and Elizabeth Stewart Dr. Moody had the good fortune of having two other American Bahá’í women helping her in the discharge of her duties. They were Dr. Sarah Clock and Miss Elizabeth Stewart. Sarah Clock left the United States for Haifa and Persia in September 1910. Her first letter dated 20 March 1911, written from Iran, contains some salient points: All Americans will certainly love Persia if they feel as I do. I am veiy happy here. .. No one can over-estimate the joy of the Persians in anticipation of the coming of Americans. Everything having any connection with America is attractive to them. .. The eagerness for education makes the young people and children very apt and only those who are with them are able to realize it. .. if one wants to be convinced of a very practical side of the Revelation, they should see the improvement in the way of living here. It is more apparent here than anywhere.5 Dr. Clock, although not’ a teacher by profession, taught English in Tihran for a while. Her aforementioned letter makes this point clear: A young man had been kind to us when we first came here and I offered to do something for him in return. His sister wanted to study English and although I had never taught anyone, I felt I must try, and before the end of a week I had a room full and finally was invited to a little school and take my class With me. .. Two hours a week is very little to give to such bright, eager people, and I want to do more. The opportunity will soon be mine, for another school is to be opened this

4 Star, vol. II,no. 18 (7 February 1912), p. 2. 5 Star, vol. 11, no.3 (28 April 1911), pp. 6~7.

[Page 1102]1102

Standing: Dr. Sarah Clock (left) and Dr. Susan Moody (right). Sitting, Lillian Kappes (left) and Elizabeth Stewart (right) in Ṭihrán. 1913.

week. Some of the pupils know English but want experience in talking and I will give them at least two hours each week.1 The Executive Secretary of the PersianAmerioan Educational Society reported on 13 July 1915: “Dr. Clock and Miss Kappes are interested in establishing centers to teach married women to read and write, and working with the advanced girl students as teachers.”2 Sarah Clock died in Ṭihrán on 24 J anuary 1922. Very little is known about her background and the nature of her services in 112111. Elizabeth Stewart was introduced to the Faith in 1899 by her renowned aunt Isabella Brittingham, herself an early convert to the Bahá’í Faith in the United States. Miss Stewart immediately recognized the truth of the Cause and paid allegiance to it. When Dr. Moody settled in Írán, she “personally supplicated

1 ibid.,p.6. 2 Star, vol. VI,no. 7 (13 July 1915), pp. 54—55.

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(‘Abdu’l-Bahá) that Miss Elizabeth H.

Stewart might be permitted to come to

Teheran as professional nurse to assist the

doctor in her medical wor 3’3

Elizabeth Stewart travelled to him in the company of Lillian Kappes, Visited ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Thonon, and arrived in 115111 in October 1911. She worked with Dr. Moody as a team and “working under the most difficu1t circumstances, not only saved hundreds of lives, but helped to bring the Bahá’í Communities of Persia and America more closely together.”4

Before leaving the United States, Elizabeth Stewart had been appointed to the Unity Band, a Bahá’í Committee established in the United States in 1910 for the purpose of corresponding “every month with one of the twelve Women’s Assemblies of the Orient.”5

In 1925, Elizabeth Stewart, in the company of Dr. Susan Moody, returned to the United States for health reasons. She died in the United States in October 1926.

Genevieve Coy

Lillian Kappes’s untimely death deprived the Tarbiyat Girls’ School of its valiant patron and created a vacuum. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá encouraged the Bahá’ís in the United States to send another person to 112111 to serve in a similar capacity. In the interim, Qudsiyyih Agraf,6 the first American—educated Persian Bahá’í woman, took charge of the school. During the North American Bahá’í

3 Star, v01. 1, no. 7 (13 Ju1y1910), p. 14.

4 Whitehead, Zebbie. Some Early Bahd ’z's Of the West (Oxford: George Ronald, Publisher, 1977), p. 131.

5 ibid.

6 Qudsiyyih Aflraf was one of the few Bahá’í women who attended the American missionary school in Ṭihrán. Through Dr. Moody’s instrumentality and with the help of some American women believers, she continued her education 111 the United States. After nine years she returned to 1rén with a master’s degree in education. The Ministry of Education refused her employment on the ground that she was a Bahá’í. She later went to Beirut and studied public health.

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Dr. Genevieve Coy during her visit to Haifa in April 1922 on her way to take up her post at the T arbiyat Girls ’ School in Tihran.

Convention of 1921, Dr. Genevieve Coy, who held a doctorate in psychology, was chosen to replace Lillian Kappes. Dr. Coy, born in 1886, had accepted the Faith in 1911. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá approved her appointment. By the time she Visited Haifa on her way to iran to take up her post in early 1922, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá had died and Shoghi Effendi had succeeded Him. Genevieve Coy served as the Director of Tarbiyat Girls’ School in Tihran for nearly two years. She returned to the United States in 1924.1

Adelaide Sharp

After the departure of Genevieve Coy, the fortunes of Tarbiyat Schools in Iihrén suffered a setback. Shoghi Effendi referred to this in his message of 14 November 1926: “the prolonged absence of competent teachers and organizers that can revive the declining influence of a hitherto renowned

1 Genevieve Coy continued her services in the United States until 1958 when she pioneered t0 Salisbury, Rhodesia (later Harare, Zimbabwe). She died there on 31 Ju1y1963.

1103

Bahá’í educational institution... are today subjects ‘of gravest concern to the elected representatives of our suffering brethren and sisters in Persia.” He began his message thus:

The situation as I see it calls for the devoted efforts of one or two capable workers who, untrammelled and With independent means, can quietly, tenaciously and tactfully, pursue over a considerable length of time the meritorious work of fostering the cause of Bahá’í education, for both boys and girls, in the swiftly changing capital of a promising country.2

In the same message he made the following appeal:

I would strongly urge the friends to consult most earnestly With that devoted, experienced and indefatigable handmaid of Baha’u’llah, Dr. Moody, Whose past services have ennobled the record of collaboration of East and West for the furtherance of the Cause of Bahá’u’lláh. It would be highly satisfactory and immensely helpful if our beloved sister could find it possible and convenient to accompany such a carefully-chosen person on the way to Tihran, and, by her unrivaled experience and loving-kindness, assist personally in the fulfillment of this pressing need.

Speaking of the ordeals awaiting the chosen person and of the rich spiritual rewards that such service would attract, Shoghi Effendi wrote:

Whoever steps into this field Will find,

as he settles down to his work, that the

environment is extremely disheartening, that restrictions are oppressive, that the amenities of social life are lacking, that the forces of opposition are determined and organized. But let him realize also that, however tedious and exacting his labors, however precarious and thankless

Shoghi Effendi, Bahá’í' Administration (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1968), pp. 119—120. 3 ibid.

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1 104 THE BAHA’t WORLD

his task, the pioneer services it is his unique privilege to render in this time of stress Will forever live in the annals of God’s living Faith, and Will prove a source of inspiration to the countless workers who, in happier times and With better means at their disposal, Will consummate the spiritual regeneration and material rehabilitation of Baha’u’llah’s native land.1 The person Who responded to this earnest appeal was another female Bahá’í from the United States—Adelaide Sham. Her enthusiasm and spirit of devotion matched those of her predecessors. She arrived in han in 1929, accompanied by Susan Moody, Who was returning to hem from the United States. They Visited Haifa on their way and spent twelve days, receiving spiritual sustenance and guidance from Shoghi Effendi. Two years after her arrival in Írán, Adelaide Sharp requested and received permission from the Guardian for her mother,

1 ibid.

Miss Adelaide Sharp with the Bahá’í Youth Group in Tihran, frain. circa 1937.

Clara Sharp, to join her. Upon arrival in Ṭihrán, Adelaide Sharp took charge of the affairs of the Tarbiyat Girls’ School and worked hard to restore its prestige. She continued her work as Director of the school until 1934, When the government closed the school. At that time the National Spiritual Assembly of Írán sought Shoghi Effendi’s guidance regarding the services of Miss Sharp. He informed the Assembly that it was necessary for her to reside in the capital and participate in different Bahá’í activities. He also advised both the National Assembly of iran and the Local Assembly of Iihrén to be very considerate of her and to provide the necessary encouragement and guidance to enable her to be of service.2

Adelaide Sharp sewed on several important committees, including the Unity of the East and the West Committee. She also organized study classes for Bahá’í youth on the Bahá’í Writings in English.

2 Shoghi Effendi, T aqu' ‘dt—i—Mubdrakilz 1927—1939 (Ṭihrán: Bahá’í Publishing Institute. vol. III), p. 147.

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In 1954, when the Guardian announced that women in iran could serve as elected members of Bahá’í administrative bodies, Adelaide Sharp became the first woman elected to the National Spiritual Assembly. Her services on that institution spread over a period of fourteen years. She served as the foreign correspondent secretary of the Assembly for many years.

Miss Sharp died in Tihran in October 1976 and was buried there. The cable sent by the Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of ham after her passing, summarizes the manifold services she rendered to the Bahá’í community in iran:

Deeply grieved passing dedicated steadfast

promoter Cause dearly loved Adelaide

1105

Sharp whose selfless labour nearly five decades community Cradle Faith in educating its children inspiring enriching spiritual 1ife its youth researching translating writings consolidating its administrative institutions and as first woman member its National Spiritual Assembly will always be lovingly remembered stop Her devoted services won her praise beloved Guardian reinforced ties binding American Bahá’í Community to friends Baha’u’llah’s native land stop Fervently praying Holy Shrines continuous progress her soul Abhá Kingdom stop Advise hold befitting memorial gatherings honour her name stop NSA US holding memorial gathering Mashriqu’l-Adhkár.l

WOMEN’S SERVICES IN 1RAN ASSUME A NEW DIMENSION

Shoghi Effendi continued ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s method of using the force of example to familiarize the Iranian believers with the potential contributions of women believers. He was W611 aware of the deep gap that existed between the component parts of the Iranian Bahá’í community, a gap that tradition had created by affording the men every opportunity to render effective service to the Cause and depriving the women of attaining their potential.

In addition to supporting in Tihran one or two female Bahá’ís from abroad, Shoghi Effendi nurtured the enthusiasm of capable and brilliant international Bahá’í travelling teachers, such as Keith Ransom-Kehler and Martha Root. He sent them to the land of Baha’u’llah’s birth and instructed the National Assembly of the country to arrange a befitting welcome, to receive them 10Vingly and with pride, to lend them whatever assistance they required, to ensure their safety and protection by using wisdom and tact, and to make arrangements for them to Visit other parts of iran?‘

1 The Bahá’í World, v01. XVII (1976—1979), p. 420.

Keith Ransom-Kehleerhe First American Martyr Keith Ransom-Kehler embraced the Bahá’í Faith in the United States in 1921. She was a university lecturer and a writer. Before she undertook her historic trip to iran in 1931, she Visited Australia and India, where she rendered memorable services. She then traveled t0 Haifa, Visited the Bahá’í sacred shrines, met Shoghi Effendi, and received guidance and direction regarding the mission he encouraged her to undertake. Thereafter, she proceeded to ham carrying a letter dated 10 June 1932 addressed by the American National Spiritual Assembly to Rida shah Pahlavi. The letter introduced her as the National Assembly’s chosen representative to present in person the renewed appeal of removing the ban on entry of Bahá’í literature to him. The letter read in part: Mrs. Keith Ransom-Kehler, an American citizen, a member of the Bahá’í community of this country, and a distinguished student of the teachings and history of the Bahá’í Faith, can, with your Majesty’s

2 Tawqi’dt, vol. 111, pp. 128-129.

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1106 THE BAHA’l WORLD

gracious permission, amplify and supplement the statements made by this Assembly in the written petition addressed to your Majesty under date of January 12, 1932. The appointment of a representative to journey to Tihran for the purpose of presenting in person the petition of this Assembly will make it evident to your Majesty how profoundly the American Bahá’ís are moved by their inability to communicate fillly with their fellowreligionists in Persia by reason of the Postal regulations still prohibiting the entry of Bahá’í books and magazines published in the United States and Canada.1 Upon arrival, Keith Ransom-Kehler received a loving welcome from the friends in Tabríz, Milan, Saysan, Mianej, and Qazvin. “Her entrance in Ṭihrán was like the Visit of a queen, amid the acclamations of thousands of rejoicing Bahá’ís. Never had Tihran so welcomed any guest from the West.”2 On 20 August 1932 Keith Ransom-Kehler cabled: “Mission successful.” The cable was followed by a report to the National Spiritual Assembly of the same date. It confirmed what the cable had conveyed: On August 15 I saw His Highness Taymur Tash and received from him the direct, unqualified assurance that Bahá’í literature would be admitted freely into Persia and permitted to circulate.3 Keith Ransom-Kehler acted on the assurance of the Court Minister and had her Bahá’í books shipped from Beirut. Soon she discovered the betrayal of the promise and the imposition of further restrictions. Her books were confiscated. The GovernorGeneral of Agharbayjan refused to receive her during her Visit to that proyince, and police orders forced the local Bahá’ís to abandon the meetings arranged in her honor.

1 Quoted in The Bahá’í World, vol. V (1932-1934), p. 391.

2 ibid., p. 392.

3 ibid., p. 393.

She apprised the Court Minister of these incidents.

She also met with the secretary charged with American affairs at the Foreign Office and sent a report of the meeting to the National Assembly. The secretary had confirmed that Bahá’í literature could not circulate in Persia at that time for three reasons:

First, that it is contrary to the constitution

of Persia to recognize any religion founded

after Islam and, since the Bahá’í religion cannot legally receive recognition, it follows that our literature must remain unrecognized. Second, that it is contrary to the constitution of Persia to permit the circulation of any literature [which the government considers] opposed to Islam.

Third, that the circulation of Bahá’í litera ture at this time might cause grave inter nal disorders that would bring much suffering to the Bahá’ís themselves.4

Keith Ransom-Kehler addressed a communication to the Sháh on 25 February 1933, refuting the above reasons for not granting permission:

In my report to America I shall be

constrained to admit that 1 must have mis understood completely the purpose and intent of the interpreter, for exhaustive investigation reveals no reference in the

Constitution of Persia to the status of

religions founded later than Islam.

Since every Bahá’í before he can so

designate himself must accept the validity

of the Prophet Muhammad and display toward the Qur’án the same reverence as that shown by the most orthodox Muslim, and since this attitude is inoulcated through Bahá’í literature, the point of excluding it because it is opposed to

Islam will, I fear, be incomprehensible. ..

I shall await your Majesty’s authority to

submit the result of my conversation with

the Foreign Office, herein set forth, to the proper Bahá’í centers throughout the

4 ibid.

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LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS 1107

Keith Ransom-Kehler at the seventh National Convention Ofthe Bahá’ís in Persia, 1933.

world;for1have no desire, asecond time, and seeking justice on their behalf. In the to find myself mistaken as to your same letter she made the following bold

Majesty’s intention.1 statement: Her appeals to the flah received no response. The National Assembly addressed another letter to the Ruler of Train through its representative. A part of this letter reads: Information has been received which leads us to believe that the permission granted in your Majesty’s name by your Maj esty’s Minister of Court some months ago removing the ban on the entrance of Bahá’í literature into Persia has now been withdrawn. .. The responsibility seems now resting upon us to inform the press that our previous communication, made in perfect good faith, must now be withdrawn.2 _ One year after her stay in Tran, on 8 Tune 1933, Keith Ransom-Kehler sent a detailed letter to the §_hah, voicing her deep concerns at the maltreatment of the Bahá’ís of Tran

1 ibid. 2 ibid.

The Bahá’ís of Persia are not a weak and helpless minority; we stand in numbers next to the State religion; but as the League report further says, ‘The Bahá’ís are by their religion, tenets and character of an extremely conciliatory disposition’.3

For that reason they patiently endure whatever hardships are imposed upon them by their governments, and for that same reason they are worthy of the utmost trust and confidence from those in authority... The numerous communications... which I have had the honor of addressing to the Crown since my interview at the Foreign Office have had but one purpose: that of ascertaining in definite and dependable form whether or not the amazing and feeble statements given

3 Minutes of the Twenty-Second Session of the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations.

[Page 1108]1108

me there were really in accord with your Majesty’s intent and desire.1 Keith Ransom-Kehler sent a final letter to the Sháh on 3 July 1933, the day she was informed that the photographs of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá had been burned by officials in Kirmanshah. She closed the letter with the following plea: I now with the most intense fervor supplicate and implore your Majesty to put a final stop to these fanatical persecutions that disgrace in the eyes of men the annals of Persia’s fomier rulers, by removing this ban against Bahá’í literature, that bids fair if it continues to involve the world in contempt for this sacred land.2 On the same day she also sent a challenging letter to every cabinet minister and to the President of Parliament, saying: It would give me great pleasure to place in your hands portions of our Bahá’í literature in order to prove the great contribution that it has made to the advancement of Islam in countries unfriendly to its reception; but although J ewish, Christian and Zoroastrian literature, all opposed to Islam is permitted to circulate, our Bahá’í literature that upholds and converts to Islam is denied this privilege. Therefore I have nothing available to present to you. In the Post Offices and Customs of Persia, however, are thousands of volumes that have been confiscated. Even a brief survey of any one of these will prove that Bahá’u’lláh lays down as fundamental, loyalty to one’s government, and the sanctity and verity of Islam.3 This challenge could not be ignored. The Minister of Education responded in a letter dated 28—4—1312[l9 July 1933]: I would inform you that today all individuals and inhabitants of the country, whether Muhammadan or people of other nations, are resting in the cradle of tranquility and

1 lee Bahá’í World, vol.V, pp. 394395. 2 ibid., p. 396. 3 ibid.,p. 395.

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security under the shadow of the power and grandeur of His Majesty Shahanshah Pahlavi, may our souls be sacrificed for him, and they benefit equally from the privilege of existing laws. But in the meantime new publications which are considered contrary to the official religion of the country or its political aspect can not be agreed to.4

Keith Ransom-Kehler’s strenuous efforts in Iran to accomplish the specific mission with which she had been entrusted, although appearing initially successful, did not achieve the desired result for several reasons. First, although her mission was purely religious in nature, she was dealing with politicians whose honesty of purpose and integrity of character could not be trusted. Second, the system of government and the prevailing bureaucracy made it impossible for Keith Ransom-Kehler to have direct access to the Shéh. Her meeting with the Minister of the Court brought about the confusion that cost his eventual dismissal. For this reason, the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada sent a delegation of three to present to the Persian Minister in Washington its letter of 10 July 1933, addressed to the Shah. The letter summarized the outcome of efforts made by Keith Ransom-Kehler and expressed optimism for a favorable result. It remained unanswered.

The third reason Keith Ransom-Kehler was not able to fulfill her mission was her sudden and untimely death on 27 October 1933. While on a Visit to Iṣfahán, she contracted smallpox, which claimed her life. Before she died she wrote:

I have fallen, though I never faltered.

Months of effort with nothing accom plished is the record that confronts me. If

anyone in future should be interested in this thwarted adventure of mine, he alone can say whether near or far from the seemingly impregnable heights of complaisance and indifference, my tired old

4 ibid., p. 396.

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body fell. The smoke and din of battle are today too dense for me to ascertain whether I moved forward or was slain in my tracks.1 Shoghi Effendi’s message of 30 October 1933 described Mrs. Ransom-Kehler’s station and the worth of her services: Keith’s precious life offered up in sacrifice to beloved Cause in Baha’u’llah’s native land. On Persian soil, for Persia’s sake, she encountered, challenged and fought the forces of darkness with high distinction, indomitable will, unswerving, exemplary loyalty. The mass of her helpless Persian brethren mourns the sudden loss of their valiant emancipator. American believers grateful and proud of the memory of their first and distinguished martyr. Sorrow stricken, I lament my earthly separation from an invaluable collaborator, an unfailing counsellor, an esteemed and faithful friend. I urge the Local Assemblies befittingly to organize memorial gathering services entitled her to an eminent rank among the Hands of the Cause of Baha’u’llah.2 Shoghi Effendi’s designation of Keith Ransom-Kehler simultaneously as the first American Bahá’í martyr and a Hand of the Cause of Bahá’u’lláh was a unique honor. Furthermore, he referred to her as his “unfailing counsellor”, “invaluable collaborator”, “esteemed and faithful friend” and the “valiant emancipator” of “her helpless Persian brethren.” Such attributes used to eulogize a female believer caused the Iranian Bahá’ís to pause in reflection. They saw that in the Bahá’í Faith women are not only capable of scaling the same heights claimed by men but are able to surpass them. They also saw that the contribution of such women was reeognized and rewarded by the head of the Faith. Thus, psychological barriers to the emancipation of Bahá’í women in him were removed one by one and preparations made for their full participation in all Bahá’í services.

1 ibid., p. 409. 2 ibid.,p. 398.

1109

Shoghi Effendi took further steps to show the high station of Keith Ransom-Kehler. In his message of 1 November 1933, he instructed the Tihran Assembly, together with representatives from §__hiraz, Kirman, Abadih, Yazd, and the southern ports of iran, to Visit her resting place on his behalf. In that message he referred to Keith Ransom-Kehler as the standard bearer of the rights of the persecuted community, the true and peerless helper of the believers in iran, the object of envy of her Bahá’í brothers and sisters in the Western countries, the one who strengthened spiritual links between the friends in the East and the West and the one who, both in life and death, was the cause of glory, elevation, and victory of the Cause of God and the exaltation of His Word.3 On 3 November, he informed the National Assembly of the United States:

Instructed Iṣfahán Assembly to inter

Keith in the Vicinity of the grave of Sulta nushushuada,4 surnamed by Bahá’u’lláh

“King of Martyrs.”5

He also advised the Assembly to disseminate his cabled messages among the Bahá’ís of provinces, that all may learn of and know about the lofty station of Keith RansomKehler.

Martha Root

Another outstanding person who consecrated her life to the service of the Cause was Martha Root. She used her professional training as a journalist to travel extensively, taking the message of the oneness of humankind to people of all ranks and met with remarkable success.

Martha Root was born on 10 August 1872 at Richwood, Ohio. She finished her university education in Chicago, heard of the Message of Bahá’u’lláh in 1909, and began

3 T(Iqu’fit, vol. III, p. 128.

4 Siyyid Hasan, entitled Sulfénu ’fl-fiuhadé (King of Martyrs), was condemned to death for his belief and publicly executed in Iṣfahán in 1883. He was designated as an Apostle of Bahá’u’lláh.

5 The Bahá’í World, vol. V, p. 398.

[Page 1110]1110

Martha Root with some Bahá’í’ women in T ilzran, fi‘dn. c. 1937

her life of service a decade later, in 1919, when she embarked on her extensive travels for the Faith. When T ablets Of the Divine Plan1 were unveiled in the United States, she was the first to arise in response to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s summons. Her world journeys took her to South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia.

In December 1929, when Martha Root was on her way to 1rén, Shoghi Effendi addressed a letter to the Trustees of the Central Assembly (precursor of the National Spiritual Assembly of 1min) and the members of Local Spiritual Assemblies throughout 1r2’1n, introducing her thus:

Miss Martha Root. .. foremost among the

male and female Bahá’í teachers, is

proceeding to him. It is incumbent upon

2111 the friends of God and the handmaids

of the Merciful to receive, with heart and

1 These Tablets, fourteen in all, were revealed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in 1916 and 1917. The Tablets, addressed to the Bahá’ís in North America, were received by them in 1919. Shoghi ’Effendi has called the Tablets “the supreme charter for teaching.”

soul, this precious personage. They should offer hospitality with utmost respect and 10Ving kindness; convene gatherings and meetings with the wisdom and dignity that is in keeping with the Cause of God, celebrate, and prove in words and deeds their pride in being re1ated to a person chosen by God to elevate the name of Bahá’u’lláh’s Faith. For this peerless believer has, with astonishing might, unsurpassed bravery and amazing steadfastness, raised the cry of Yé Bahá’u’LAbhá in the highest places; she has brought the sacred name of the Faith of God to the attention of the potentates of the eaith, be they rulers, ministers, learned, or sovereigns; and has glorified and endeared the oppressed and strugghng community of that land in the eyes of the prominent people of the world.2

2 T aqu’ ’(it, vol. II, pp. 150—151, freely translated by the writer.

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Despite the inadequacy of the means of travel, Martha Root Visited many provinces in lrén. Wherever she went, she was met with a tumultuous welcome by Bahá’ís, large numbers of whom would await, with reverence and pride, her arrival several kilometers outside the city limits. In Qazvin her adventurous spirit guided her to the family of Táhirih, from whom she gathered information for her book entitled T dhirz’th he Pure.

Martha Root was a prodigy of her time. She had served the Faith in ways that no other had dared. She had introduced a crowned head, Queen Marie of Romania, and her daughter, Princess Ileana, to the Cause of Baha’u’llah. She had met With King Faisal of ‘Iráq, and with many other renowned personalities of the world. The Guardian of the Faith has summarized her services in the following tribute contained in his message of 12 February 1929:

...I wish, in a few words, to pay a tribute,

however, inadequate, to the magnificent

services rendered by that exemplary and indefatigable teacher of the Cause, our dearly—beloved sister, Miss Martha Root.

Her international travels on behalf of the

Bahá’í Faith, so wide in their range, so

extensive in their duration, so inspiring in

their results, will adorn and enrich the annals of God’s immortal Faith. Her earliest journeys to the southernmost limits of the American continent, to India and to South Africa, to the eastern confines of Asia, to the islands of the southern Seas and the Scandinavian countries of the North; her more recent contact with the mlers and crowned heads of

Europe and the impression Which her

undaunted spirit created in royal circles in

the Balkan countries; her close affiliation with international organizations, peace societies, humanitarian movements and

Esperantist circles; and her latest Victories

in the university circles of Germany-wall

constitute a compelling evidence of what the power of Baha’u’llah can achieve.

These historic labours, pursued singlehanded and in circumstances of financial stringency and i11—hea1th, have been characterized throughout by a spirit of fidelity, of self-effacement, of thoroughness and Vigor that none has excelled. He ended his message with the following extraordinary appeal: I appeal to individual believers and Bahá’í Assemblies alike to. .. respond speedily and entirely to every request that from time to time she feels moved to address to her fellow-workers in every land, to strive to attain the high standard of stewardship that she has set, and to pray from the ‘Very depths of their hearts for the uninterrupted continuance of her noble endeavors.1 When Martha Root died, Shoghi Effendi sent a cable to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada on 3 October 1939 and referred to her as “foremost Hand which ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Will has raised up in first Bahá’í century”, “the first, finest fruit which the Formative Age of the Faith of Baha’u’llah has as yet produced” and “one Whose acts shed imperishable lustre on American Bahá’í community.” In the same message the beloved Guardian advised the National Assembly about sharing the expenses of “erection of monument in symbolic spot,2 the meeting-place of East and West, to both of Which she unsparingly dedicated the full force of her mighty energies.”3 In his review of the history of the first Bahá’í century, Shoghi Effendi singled out, ...for special reference her who. .. through her prodigious and indeed unique exertions in the intemational teaching field, has covered herself with a glory that has not only eclipsed the achievements of the teachers of the Faith among her contemporaries the globe around, but has

1 Bahá’í' Administration, p. 174.

2 In Honolulu, Hawaii, which links the two continents of Asia and America.

3 The Bahá’í World, vol. VIII (1938—1940), p. 646.

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outshone the feats accomplished by any of its propagators in the course of an entire century. To Martha Root, that archetype of Bahá’í itinerant teachers and the foremost Hand raised by Baha’u’llah since ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s passing, must be awarded the title of Leading Ambassadress of His Faith and Pride of Bahá’í teachers, whether men or women, in both the East and the West.1 Brilliant and celebrated Bahá’ís like Martha Root and Keith Ransom-Kehler, who had achieved outstanding successes in the teaching field, were sent by Shoghi Effendi to Train, where they could neither speak the language nor teach the inhabitants. One may ask: Why? Could it not be for the need to remind the Bahá’ís in that land of the

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immense potential latent in the world of women?

In 1954, when Shoghi Effendi gave the “glad—tidings” to the Bahá’í women of Train that during Riḍván of that year they would share with the men the right of membership on the Local as well National Spiritual Assemblies, he counselled them to not be satisfied with administrative equality. He encouraged them to surpass the men in the fields of teaching and pioneering, to outdo them in the arena of service, to become more courageous, more audacious and more detached. He persuaded the women to emulate the example of their spiritual sisters in America who, he said, had excelled the men in opening up countries to the Faith. Martha Root was mentioned by name.2

THE IMPACT OF THE SERVICES OF THE AMERICAN WOMEN ON THE IRANIAN Bahá’í COMMUNITY

The Bahá’í community of Train which had, from the inception of the Faith, nurtured the tree of the Cause with the blood of unnumbered martyrs and had helped spread the new Faith to the Western hemisphere, had a basic‘ problem at home. Unwarranted conselvatism was preventing the women from recognizing their potential and attaining their rights. Role models were needed to prove the falsity of the culture’s perception of women.

The calibre of the American women who went to lran was of great significance. They were well educated, independent, audacious, inflexibly devoted to the Cause of God, highly motivated, and firmly committed to the work they had set out to do. These were qualities Iranians had believed belonged exclusively to men, and the Western Bahá’í

l Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1970), p. 386.

2 Taqu'fit 1952—1957, pp. 190—191.

3 In 1955, widespread persecutions spearheaded by Muhammad Falsafi circumscribed the administrative activities of the Bahá’í Faith in Tran. During that time the publication of Ader—i—Amrz’ (Bahá’í News)

women proved that notion wrong. Several decades of constant and courageous service provided the Iranian Bahá’í community with proof that women were capable of shouldering administrative and decision—making responsibilities, and that the time had arrived for the Iranian women to try their hand in such works.

It is noteworthy that when the time for the election of women to the national and local Bahá’í institutions arrived, the only woman elected to the National Assembly was Adelaide Sharp, an American resident in Ṭihrán. It took the Bahá’í community longer to realize that the Iranian women believers were capable for the job. Bahíyyih Nadiri was the first Persian woman to be elected to the National Assembly.3 Thereafter, until the

was suspended. The first issue (four in one), which reported the names of members of the new National Assembly, came out in June 1960. Mrs. Nadiri was also on the National Assembly in 1980 when the Islamic Revolutionary Guards abducted the nine members. They have not been heard from since.

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time of the Assembly’s disbandment by the Islamic Revolutionary Government in 1984, the number of women on the National Assembly fluctuated between zero and two.

Tracing the process that culminated in the election of a woman or two to the National Assembly of Tran sheds light on the Wisdom Which necessitated the gradual implementation of women’s rights to equality With men. The Báb had appointed a woman as one of His Letters of the Living.1 Táhirih removed the veil, championed the cause of change and refused to honor traditions which kept women backward. The Báb supported her Views and actions which gave hope and courage to other Babi women. In Nayriz and Zanj an Babi women fought side by side With men to defend themselves against the assault of their enemies.

Baha’u’llah did not follow the Báb’s revolutionary way of introducing sudden change in the fabric of society, but used a gradual process to prepare His followers for spiritual transformation. His Mission was to save the moribund body of humanity; He diagnosed the illness and prescribed the remedy. The world in general, and the Muslim world in particular, was not ready for the application of the principle of equality during His Ministry. Men and women alike would have suffered the adverse consequences of a drastic change. He enunciated the principle of equality, emphasized the tenets of unity and equity, acknowledged the women’s contribution to the development of His cause, and praised their achievements. But the scope for the implementation of practical change in the status of women remained, of necessity, limited to inconspicuous improvements during His Ministry.

‘Abdu’l-Bahá continued the practice of gradual implementation of change. He spoke most forcefully about the need for women’s emancipation and progress, and took practical

1 The first eighteen believers in the Báb. They independently searched for and found Him. They were designated as Hurtif-i—Hayy (Letters of the Living). The numerical value of ‘Hayy’ is eighteen.

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steps to convince members of the community, especially in the East, of women’s potential to undertake responsible tasks. However, in His lifetime, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá did not pronounce the women in lrén eligible for membership on elective Bahá’í institutions and did not appoint them as Hands of the Cause of God. Also, no Iranian woman was designated as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Disciple. But in the West the story was very different. Of the nineteen Bahá’ís the Guardian designated as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Disciples, six were women. Some were also designated as Hands of the Cause posthumously. This welcomed change was so gradual that its repercussions were not felt in the East, where the men would not hear of the prospect of women serving with them on the institutions of the Faith.

A letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi in July 1936 included the statement that, according to a Tablet from‘ ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “the membership of the Universal House is confined to men. .. [but that] In the local as well as the national Houses of Justice. .. women have the full right of membership.”2 This instruction notwithstanding, women in Tran were not given the right to be elected to an Assembly until 1954, at the end of the first year of the Ten Year Global Plan. And this despite the fact that women in India and Burma (non~lslamic Eastern countries) had been made eligible for election since 1923. Shoghi Effendi likewise did not name any Persian Bahá’í woman as a Hand of the Cause, although several of his appointees to the rank in the West were women.

When the Boards of Counsellors were appointed by the Universal House of Justice in 1968, no Bahá’í woman in Tran was appointed a Counsellor. However, in the western Asia zone Shirin Boman, a woman of Persian background living in India, was appointed to the position in 1970. Later, more women of Iranian origin were appointed Counsellors in India, and by the

2 Women: (1 Compilation, p. 12.

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Six Year Plan Persian Bahá’í women had been designated Counsellors in Africa, Australasia, and Europe.

The paucity of female leaders points to the tremendous difficulty associated with change in the status of Iranian women; yet, the change had to be made for the community to conform to the Teachings of the Blessed Beauty. Change required sacrifice, which the American Bahá’í women made through their selfless service. Their anguish, self-abnegation, loving labors, long years of suffering in acquiescence, steadfastness, perseverance, and hard work won them success.

Bahá’í women in Tran, who had received enlightenment through their belief in Baha’u’llah but “had generally remained backward because of their lack of secular education, learned, through long years of association with the American Bahá’í women, the value of education which gave them insights into surmounting the barriers erected in their way. They gradually began to scale the heights of glory destined for members of the human

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race, and have been fulfilling a giant share in the execution of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Divine Plan. They have produced at home and abroad exemplary pioneers, teachers, administrators, and even martyrs, some of whom have been in their teens.

The argument that the implementation of the principle of equality should take longer than it already has involves a danger. The problem with too slow a process of change is that slowness itself becomes a practice and creates a pretext under which the natural and timely consummation of the desired change is indefinitely delayed. This stifling process was detected by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Who wisely reversed its course with the dispatch of audacious Bahá’í women to Train. Their services will be remembered for the essential Changes they introduced in the Bahá’í community, especia11y in the area of implementing the principle of the equality of men and women. Their sacrifices will have borne fruit when the women in Train and Iranian women abroad attain full equality with men.

CONCLUSION

The heroic and sacrificial services of the American Bahá’í women between 1909 to 1976 achieved two basic purposes. First, as skilled and professional Bahá’ís, they bore eloquent testimony that, given equal opportunity, women were fully capable of ascending to the heights claimed by men in the field of service to humanity. This was an important lesson for the Bahá’í women of Persia, whose confidence in their ability to succeed in what they thought was men’s domain had been shattered over long centuries of deprivation and denial of their rights in a Muslim country. The lesson was equally valuable to male Bahá’ís, who had held onto

the traditional belief in their “divine right” to assume superiority over women.

Second, American Bahá’í women provided the means by which women in Tran could claim their rights. They offered girls education similar to that which the boys enj oyed, not only providing the requirements of a secular curriculum, but also offering enlightenment with regard to what equality meant and how it could be implemented. The services of the American women believers in Tran were maintained until the women’s equal right to education and to service on local and national Bahá’í institutions was attained.

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4. JAMAL EFFENDI

ELHAM AFNAN (ILHAM AFNAN)

THE Indian sub—continent has come to be one of the strongholds of the Faith of Baha’u’llah. India boasts the largest Bahá’í national community, one of the first National Spiritual Assemblies in the Bahá’í world, established in 1923, and one of the most beautiful edifices ever raised to the glory of God, the Bahá’í Temple in Bahapur outside New Delhi, dedicated in December 1986. Now, at a time When we are witnessing the entry of tens of thousands of souls into the Cause of God in India, it is befitting to remember the origins of the Faith in that land.

One of the Letters of the Living was Sa‘id-i—Hindi, an Indian, who met the Báb in Shíráz. Another Indian, a dervish, whom He named Qahru’llah attained His presence in Chiríq. Yet another, Siyyid Basir, accepted the Báb and had the bounty of meeting Baha’u’llah in Nfir. But none of these men left a pennanent trace of his work in his native land. Later, several of the Afnans established a trading company and a printing press in Bombay. Bombay thus became a centre for the Bahá’ís, especially those travelling to the Holy Land. However, no effort had yet been made to teach the native people the Faith. The distinction of first bringing the Faith of Baha’u’llah to a large number of Indians was to belong to Sulaymén ghan-iTunukabuni, surnamed Jamali’d—Din by Baha’u’llah, and known as Jamal Effendi.

Sulayman Khan was the son of ‘132’1 Khan, a wealthy and influential man. He was boi‘n in Tunukaban, in the province of Mazindaran. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says that from childhood, “he had high ambitions and noble aims, and he was honor and aspiration personified. ”1 He moved to Tihran hoping to achieve an important position in government circles.

There he found the Faith and became a devoted and enthusiastic believer. Thenceforward, he dedicated his life to the service of the Cause. He was never married and spent the remainder of his days travelling and teaching.

Jamal Effendi put on the garments of a dervish and travelled to the Holy Land, where “for a time he rested under the protection of the Ancient Beauty;... gained the honor of entering the presence of Bahá’u’lláh, and listened to momentous teachings from His holy Zips.”2 Following his pilgrimage, he travelled extensively throughout the Ottoman Empire, hoping to teach the Faith. He was in Istanbul in 1874 (1291 A.H.), where he met Shay@ Kazim—i—Samandar. Realizing that the people there were not yet ready to embrace the Faith, he finally returned to ‘Akká.

At about this time, the Afnans in India, realizing the Indians’ receptivity to the Faith, sent a petition to Baha’u’llah, asking that a knowledgeable and experienced teacher be sent to India. Baha’u’llah sent Jamal Effendi, who arrived in Bombay in 1878 (1295 A.H.), accompanied by Mirza Husayn, one of his kinsmen. He travelled widely throughout India and adj acent countries for eleven years, until 1888.

He was sustained in his labors by numerous Tablets he received from Baha’u’llah. He sowed the seeds of knowledge and love for the Faith through his great spiritual power, his vast experience and deep understanding, his beautiful words and upright character. He talked to people of every class and

1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.Memorials offhe Faithful (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1971), p. 134. 2 ibid.,p. 135.

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Visited dignitaries in every land. Many were informed of and attracted to the Faith and many embraced it through him. He delivered the Tablets revealed for these believers and was himself the recipient of many Tablets from the Most Exalted Pen. Later he also published and disseminated Baha’u’llah’s The Seven Valleys, in Persian.

1n Madras, he met Siyyid Muetafay-iRumi, a young and deeply religious man, who was soon attracted by Jamal Effendi’s charm and radiance. He embraced the Cause of God and was set aflame with the fire of the love of Bahá’u’lláh. He served the Faith with great distinction, in both the teaching and administrative fields in Burma. The most illustrious of Jamal Effendi’s converts, he was posthumously named a Hand of the Cause of God by Shoghi Effendi in 1942.

Jamal Effendi and Mirza Husayn Visited Ceylon and its capital, Colombo, which was a centre of Buddhism. There they faced severe opposition from the religious leaders and suffered greatly. Mirza Husayn became ill and passed away there, thereby becoming the first Bahá’í to be buried on that island.

In 1888, Jamal Effendi set out for ‘Akká with two new believers, one a hatter and the other an engraver, and a child named Bashir who served him. However, he had been in Baha’u’llah’s presence but a short time when the Blessed Beauty dispatched him once again back to India. Thus in that same year, on 20 March, Jamal Effendi sailed to India, this time attended by Haji Faraju’llahi—Tafrishi. He resumed his travels there, going to places he had not Visited previously, such as Java, Siam, Singapore, Kashmir, Tibet, Yarkand, Kokand and Russian Turkistan. He taught souls everywhere and in Java particularly was able to attract several of the rulers and dignitaries.

These travels took a year and six months during which he suffered much hardship. His feet were frozen and wounded from travelling in the snowy mountains between Kashmir and Tibet. At one point, he lost all his belongings, books and Tablets when they

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fell into a river from the top of a steep mountain. Also, he met some savage and warlike tribes of the Isma‘ili sect who treated him cruelly. Much grieved, he decided to return Via Kabul and wrote to ‘Abdu’r-Rahman Qan, the governor, for permission. In reply to the letter, in which he had mentioned the wounds afflicting his feet, the governor wrote “that should he come to Kabul, his hands would go the way of his feet”.1 Disappointed, Jamal Effendi proceeded to Balkh and Badakhshan, thence to Laddakh and Srinagar in Kashmir, and to other parts of India. Haji Faraju’lláh passed away in Bombay in 1894.

Jamal Effendi’s travels were filled with numerous incidents and anecdotes, only a few of which have so far been recorded by historians. One concerns the Navvab of Rampur, who knew and greatly respected Jamal Effendi. One of the Navvab’s relatives, a young man, had turned away from his religion and become an agnostic. The religious leaders to whom the NaVVab had turned to guide the young man had failed. He therefore wrote to Jamal Effendi and invited him to his seat, sending some dignitaries to welcome and escort him to Rampur. At a meeting arranged for the purpose and attended by the young man’s friends and companions, J amal Effendi entered into discussion with him, using the Socratic method of question and answer. He proved his point so convincingly that the man’s friends all confessed the truth of Jamal Effendi’s position. The young man, however, felt humiliated and enraged and wrote a letter to J amal Effendi saying, “In retaliation for what you have done, I shall spread far and wide your reputation as a Babi so that all may arise to oppose and persecute you.” Jamal Effendi replied: “My friend, should you keep your word and make me known as a Babi, I shall be deeply grateful to you and reward you with a costly Kashmir shawl.”

1 Balyuzi, H.M. Eminent Bahá ’z's in the Time of Bahá’u’lláh (Oxford: George Ronald, 1985), p. 124.

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Jamdl Effendi, standing in back row fourth from left (with white beard), with friends 112

Egypt including the Hand of the Cause Mirzd Muhammad T aqz’ (seated seventh from right).

Another story tells how Jamal Effendi taught the Faith to 6,000 people in Mandalay, Burma. Because they were not yet ready for it, he did not disclose to them that Bahá’u’lláh had established a new Dispensation. Thus, although they acknowledged the truth of Baha’u’llah’s Message, they continued to practice Islamic laws and rituals. After Jamal Effendi had left India, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá sent Mirzá Mahram, another great teacher, to Mandalay, Where he announced to the people the independent character of the Faith and told them of its laws. Nearly two—thirds of the believers were so agitated that they rejected the Faith entirely and even tried to put Mirzá Mahram to death. Had it not been for the interference of a British police officer, the mob would have succeeded in killing him. The policeman, a Christian, asked Mirzá Mahram what he had said so to inflame the crowd. He replied, “I said‘"the same thing that Christ said in His day.”1 Nevertheless, the remaining 2,000 embraced

1 Taherzadeh, Adib. The Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, Mazra 'ih and Bahjz'.‘ 1877~92 (Oxford: George Ronald, 1987), p.184.

the Cause and were deepened in it by Mirzá Mahram.

Jamal Effendi, after twenty years of continually teaching the Faith in India and its neighboring countries, returned to the Holy Land, about five years after Baha’u’llah’s ascension. Some time later, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá entrusted him with another important mission. Shortly before the ascension of Bahá’u’lláh, two outstanding believers, Hand of the Cause Haji 5Akh__und and the Trustee of Huququ’lláh Haji Amin, were imprisoned in Qazvin. The Prime Minister at the time, Aminu’s-Sultén, was sympathetic to their plight, realized the injustice of their imprisonment and made kind remarks about them. Bahá’u’lláh was pleased at this and, according to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, said,

Should someone go to Persia, and manage to convey it, this message must be delivered to Aminu’s—Sultdn: you took steps to help the prisoners; you freely rendered them a befitting service; this service will not beforgotten. Rest assured that it will bring you honor and call down a blessing upon all your affairs. 0

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Aminu’s-Sultan/ Every house that is raised up will one dayfall to ruin, except the house of God; that will grow more massive and be better guarded day by day. T hen serve the Court of God with all your might, that you may discover the way to a home in Heaven, and found an edifice that will endureforever. ”1

Some years later, Aminu’s-Sultén once again was able to aid one of the Bahá’í' teachers, Siyyid Asadu’lláh—i-Qumi, and gave him sanctuary at a time of severe persecution. Shortly thereafter he lost favor with the fléh and was exiled “to another town. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá took the opportunity to fillfill His Father’s wishes by sending Jamél Effendi to deliver a “prayer and missive” to Aminu’s~Su1tén.

The prayer besought God’s aid and bounty and succor for the fallen Minister, so that he might, from that corner of oblivion, be recalled to favor. In the letter we clearly stated: “Prepare to return to T ihran. Soon will God’s help arrive; the light of grace will shine on you again; with full authority again, you will find yourselffree, and Prime Minister. This is your reward for the ejj’orts you exerted on behalf of a man who was oppressed. ”...

From T ihran, Sulaymdn [Khán journeyed to Qum, and according to his instructions went to live in a cell in the shrine of the Immaculate... Sulayman Khan inquired after the fallen Minister and expressed the wish to meet him.

When the Minister learned of this, he sent for Sulayman flan. Placing all his trust in God, Sulayman Khan hastened to the Minister’s house and, meeting him in private, presented the letter from ‘Abdu ’lBahd. The Minister rose, and received the letter with extreme respect. T hen

1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Memorials, p. 136.

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addressing the [gym he said: “I had given up hope. If this longing is fulfilled, I will arise to serve; I will preserve and uphold the friends of God. ”...

In brief the Minister pledged himself to serve the friends, and Sulayman [@6272 took his leave. The Minister then desired to give him a sum of money to defray the expenses of his journey, but Sulayman Khan refused, and despite the Minister’s insistence, would accept nothing. The [Lhdn had not yet reached the Holy Land on his return journey when Aminu’s-Sultan was recalled from exile and immediately summoned to the Premiership again. He assumed the position and functioned with full authority; and at first he did indeed support the believers, but toward the end, in the case of the Yazd martyrdoms, he was negleotful. He neither helped nor protected the suflerers in any way, nor would he listen to their repeated pleas, until all of them were put to death. Accordingly he too was dismissed, a ruined man?

Jamél Effendi returned to ‘Akká, Where before long he passed away on 9 November 1898 (24 Jamédiyu’th-lhéni 1316 A.H.). He is buried in ‘Akká and the inscription on his gravestone, revealed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, reads:

Jamali’d-Din, the renowned traveller in every region, the disseminator of the fragrance of the love of God, has become a traveller in God’s domains which are hidden from the eyes of those who are shut out as by a veil. D. I3I6A.H.

Other Sources:

- Sulayménii, ‘Azizu’lláh. Masabih—i—Hiddyat, V01. 8 (Ṭihrán: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, BB 130, [AD 1973]).

2 ibid., pp. 137~38.

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5. THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE: AGRICULTURE AND THE PROMISE OF PEACE

PAUL HANLEY

THE Vision of a “peaceable Kingdom” has long been an impelling human aspiration generating rich literary and artistic expression, fueling secular ideologies and pervading faith and scripture. Often, descriptions of an ideal future are replete With bucolic imagery of agricultural bounty. This agrarian conception of God’s Kingdom was eloquently voiced by Isaiah,1 whose prophecy anticipates the conflux of a future peace and an effective, just and sustainable agriculture.

This prophetic theme is continued and developed in the Bahá’í Writings. In the Tablet of the World, Baha’u’llah clearly established the importance of agriculture in His World Order: Whilst in the Prison of ‘Akká, We revealed in the Crimson Book that which is conducive to the advancement of mankind and the reconstruction of the world. The utterances set forth therein by the Pen Of the Lord of Creation include the following which constitute the fundamental principles for the administration of the affairs Ofmen.... The first four principles given were the promotion of the lesser peace, the adoption of a universal auxiliary language, adherence to that which Will promote fellowship, kindliness andunity, and universal education. Continuing with the fifth principle, Bahá’u’lláh stated: Special regard must be paid to agriculture. Although it hath been mentioned in the fifth place, unquestionably it precedeth the others.2

That agriculture should be placed “unquestionably” first among these “fundamental principles for the administration of affairs of men,” Which are “conducive to the advancement of mankind and to the reconstruction of the world,” is remarkable. In it is grounded the quest for peace, no longer a pious dream but intrinsically linked With the concrete task of human development.

Bahá’u’lláh’s statement demands a broad definition of the term agriculture; not farming alone, but agriculture in the fullest sense with economic, social, and spiritual connotations referring to the food and agricultural system as a Whole. He leads us to conclude that the development of sustainable agriculture Will play a leading role in the process of peacemaking itself, and that the outcome of this process will be an economic, social and administrative order guided to a great extent by its agricultural priorities.

Aside from Bahá’u’lláh’s emphatic statement in the Tablet of the World, there are few specific references to agriculture in the Writings. Nevertheless, a survey of the Writings yields much that is relevant to a study of agriculture and related concerns. Furthermore, the agriculturalist sees in the basic tenets of the Faith the preconditions for successful agricultural development.

A reflection, then, on the general principles of the Faith as they apply to agriculture is presented prior to consideration of ideas specifically related to agricultural concerns.

1 Isaiah, 2:4; 11:1~9. the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 2 Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh revealed after 1978), pp. 89—90.

Adapted from an article published in The Journal of Bahd ’2' Studies, May 1990.

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A. THE PRECONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The Bahá’í approach to any maj or question—Whether related to the economic, political, or social order, to health, education or social services, to the arts or to agriculturew—is by definition wholistic, recognising not only the integrity of the human species but also the coherence of the physical and spiritual dimensions of creation. For a Bahá’í, no problem can be solved in isolation as none is isolated. The agricultural question is a prime example.

Successful development requires a world View and institutions which reflect a profound understanding of who we are and why we are living here and now. Humans have been placed by the Creator at a point between the material and spiritual dimensions of His Creation. Our role on the planet is to be its consciousness, to bring the Kingdom of God to earth and to establish its good order. The Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh defines the requirements, establishes the processes, and illuminates the qualities and values required in the shaping of a new order which is at once the goal and the means of transforming its constituent systems.

The animating, pivotal principle of the World Order of Bahá’u’lláh is unity. Three facets of the principle-unity embraces all of creation, the material and spiritual requirements for life are interconnected, and personal and social responsibility must be balanced—greatly influence the development process as we work to build a new order with a renewed agriculture sector.

Unity embraces all of creation

The principle of unity has far-reaching implications. It causes us to widen our perception of ourselves, our human relationships and our relationships with nature. “The essential oneness of all the myriad forms and grades of life” wrote Esslemont “is one of the fundamental teachings of Bahe't’u’lléth.”1 The Bahá’í view of unity, embracing the whole of creation, is the paradigm for our age. The acceptance of the paradigm in the collective consciousness is the key to development both in peace and in man/nature co-evolution.

The first and most important stage in the unity paradigm is acknowledgment of the unity of the human race. ...until the minds ofmen become united, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stated, no important matter can be accomplished.2 In fact, Bahá’u’lláh wrote, the well—being ofmankind, its peace and security are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established.3

Disunity explains most of our modern failures in agriculture—our failure to ensure universal nourishment or to adequately husband natural resources such as soil and forests. Unbridled nationalism, racism, sexism, and religious animosity allow small groups of people to wantonly devour the lion’s share of the earth’s bounty. Greed for power and profit bear a large measure of responsibility for the misappropriation of resources. Poverty and hunger intensify as a powerful elite grows fat yet remains unfulfilled. This desire to control and profit from others is reflected in our attitude towards nature.

The light of unity can eclipse divisive prejudices and nurture the human solidarity that alone can support a foundation for._peace and development. An acceptance of the oneness of

1 Esslemont, John E, Bahd ’u 'lláh and the New Era 3 Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980), p. 101. Bahá’u ’lláh (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of 1976), p. 286.

‘Abdu’l-Bahá (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1978), p. 297.

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mankind makes not only right social relationships possible but also our relationship to the earth, whose resources, Shoghi Effendi wrote, “...dissipated and wasted on war, whether economic or political, will be consecrated to such ends as will extend the range of human inventions and technical development, to the increase of the productivity of mankind. . .”‘

The material and spiritual requirements for life are interconnected

The struggle of humanity toward the Kingdom of God on earth necessitates the infusion of spirit into every facet of our being. “From the beginning of His stupendous mission,” stated the Universal House of Justice, “Baha’u’llah urged upon the attention of nations the necessity of ordering human affairs in such a way as to bring into being a world unified in all aspects of its life. In unnumbered verses and tablets He repeatedly and variously declared the ‘progress of the world’ and the ‘development of nations’ as being among the ordinances of God for this day. The oneness of mankind, which is at once the operating principle and the ultimate goal of His Revelation, implies the dynamic coherence between the spiritual and practical requirements of life on earth.”2

Recognition of the spiritual dimension of life is a condition of continued material existence, just as the material requirements of living are conditions for the manifestation of the human spirit. Our civilization as a whole, however, is increasingly preoccupied with the material; the gods of wealth and power have seduced society and left it deadened. The possibility of there being spiritual remedies for social ills is not part of peoples’ world View.

Commenting on this malaise, Baha’u’llah described the current state of humanity: Witness how the world is being afflicted with a fresh calamity every day, its tribulation is continually deepening... Its sickness is approaching the stage of utter hopelessness, inasmuch as the true Physician is debarred from administering the remedy, whilst unskilled practitioners are regarded with favor, and are accorded full freedom to act.3 But this tribulation is a signal, an antecedent to awakening spirituality. “Adversity, prolonged, worldwide, afflictive, allied to chaos and universal destruction, must needs convulse the nations, stir the conscience of the world, disillusion the masses.” And, wrote the Guardian, “precipitate a radical change in the very conception of society. . .”4

The new World Order which will arise will feature the broad acceptance of the coherence of material and spiritual requirements of life, acceptance of which is a prerequisite for successful agricultural development.

Personal and social responsibilities must be balanced

The development process succeeds to the extent that it resounds within the individual; the Kingdom must be found within and brought out into the world. Thus personal and societal transformation are an harmonic pair; progress results from a new way of living individually and collectively. The Bahá’í Faith, the Universal House of Justice wrote, “does not comprise a series of specific answers to current problems, but rather the illumination of an entirely new way of life. Without this way of life the problems are insoluble; with it they Will either

1 Shoghi Effendi, Call to the Nations: Extracts from The Bahá’í World, V01. XIX (1983—1986), (Haifa: the writings ofShoghi Effendi (Haifa: Bahá’í World Bahá’í World Centre, 1994). p. 346. Centre, 1977), p. 56. 3 Gleanings, pp. 39—40.

2 Universal House of Justice in a letter to the Bahá’ís 4 Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is Come (Wilof the World dated 20 October 1983. Published in mette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1961), p. 127.

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not arise, or if they arise, can be resolved. . .”1 The new way of life aims to educe individual potential and ensure that our contribution—through our skills and labor, our organizational abilities, our efforts for education or science, or in whatever field of expertisefi—will render service to society.

“. . .as the Bahá’í community grows it will acquire experts in numerous fields,” the Universal House of Justice wrote. “. .. As these experts bring their knowledge and skill to the service of the community, and even more, as they transform their various disciplines by bringing to bear upon them the light of the Divine Teachings, problem after problem now disrupting society will be answered.”2 For this reason a Bahá’í approach to development assigns great importance to the expansion of awareness and the cultivation of Virtues, and to the design and implementation of systems supportive of the attainment of spiritual maturity.

It is clear, then, that a spiritual orientation is necessarily the starting point in the development process in general and within each field of human endeavor specifically. It is particularly pertinent to the study of agriculture because sustainable agriculture is fundamental to solidarity and world order. A spiritual focus includes the recognition of a new unity paradigm, of the confluence of material and spiritual requirements for life, and of the need for a balance of individual and social responsibility for change. With these preconditions in mind we can begin to consider specific aspects of Bahá’í approach to agriculture.

B. PRINCIPLES FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: A SURVEY OF THE WRITINGS

Baha’u’llah’s remarkable statement that agriculture precedes even the promotion of the Lesser Peace as a priority in establishing world order reinforces the essential connection of development and peace. This is further emphasised by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Who said in His public talks concerning universal peace and order that ...thefundamental basis Ofcommunity is agriczitlz‘ure,3 and that ...the peasant class and the agricultural class exceed other classes in the importance of their service.4

There are at least three reasons for the emphasis on agriculture as the foundation of social order. The first is obvious: although we don’t live by bread alone, each of us needs food first and foremostmbefore clothing, shelter, or television! Religion calls us to pay attention to what is essential as opposed to what is not. Special regard should be given to assure that all have a diet sufficient to nourish full physical and mental well—being—in preference to current economic imperatives, such as the production of armaments or frivolous consumer items.

Second, the agricultural sector plays a significant role in any economy. Although as few as two percent of populations are engaged in farming as an occupation in industrial nations,5 as many as twenty-five percent work in the agricultural sector in production and distribution of food, of farm supplies and machinery, marketing, transportation, food sales and handling, advertising, finance, and so on—many more if food handling at home is included. (Economists speculate that one in four devoted themselves to food gathering as far back as the Stone Age—it seems that some things never change.) In most Third World countries a

1 Universal House of Justice, letter to the National 3 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, F oundatz'ons of World Unity: comSpiritual Assembly of the United States dated piled from Addresses and T ablets Of 'Abdu ’l—Bahd 21 July 1968. (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1979), p. 37. 2 Universal House of Justice, Letter to an individual 4 ibid, p. 39. dated 21 August 1977. 5 Production Yearbook. vol. 35. Rome: Food and

Agriculture Organization.

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Students in the New Era Development Institute ’5' Community Development F acilitator Course help Chikali women in Maharashtra, India, plant rice in the fields. T he purpose was to have the students experience rural life with their fellow Bahd ’z'S. August 199] .

Members Ofthe Bahá’í community ofCaserta, Italy, planting acorn seedlings on a hill as an environmentalproject to enhance their cizfy. 15 March 1987.

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maj ority are directly employed in farm work. The figure is forty-four percent world-wide.1 Those not directly employed in the food industry, of course, allocate a sizable portion of their income to food. The point is that everyone, not only the producer, has a high stake in the success of the agricultural system.

Third, food has tremendous cultural significance. Our most basic human relationshipsmother to babe, parent/child, gatherings of family or friends, national, religious, or ethnic feasts and festivals—all have nurturing through food at their center. Also, because of the driving need to eat we can all understand and empathise with hunger. F 00d and agriculture, then, have a profound symbolic power which can be a unifying force.

Despite these factors, which should establish food production at the centre of social concern, our perception of its importance has decreased as our capacity to produce it has grown. One farmer with modern technology can now produce enough food for fifty people. This increases the population of non—producers, Who migrate to towns and cities where they lose touch with the land and become alienated from production. They perceive cheap food to be a right but feel little responsibility for farm Viability, farm prices, or resource conservation. Because of their majority and their administrative and economic influence, their concerns override others and agriculture is impoverished.

The Bahá’í approach resolves the modern rural/urban split by emphasising the centrality of agriculture for all of society. The perceived division between urban and rural is repaired as the two become mutually supportive, an advocatory rather than antagonistic relationship: the rural nurtures the city which in turn provides full support for a Vital rural community.

This strong support for agriculture, rural life, and respect for the producing class suggests that a new order would act to halt rural-to-urban migration and to maintain a large and healthy rural population.

Justice, equity, and world order

Our civilization’s problems, including agricultural problems, arise from defects in its prevailing order. The winds of despair are, alas, blowing from every direction, wrote Baha’u’llah, and the strife that divides and afflicts the human race is daily increasing. The signs ofimpending convulsions and chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing order appears to be lamentably defective.2 The maj or defect in the present world order is its inherent injustice and inequity on the personal, local, national, and international fronts: Justice is, in this day, bewailing its plight, and Equity groaneth beneath the yoke of oppression.3

Food is a material need, and Baha’u’llah stated clearly that justice is the key to satisfying material needs: The purpose ofjustice iS the appearance of unity among men.... Were mankind to be adorned with this raiment, they would behold the day—star Of the utterance, ’On that day God will satisfy everyone out osz's abundance, ’shim'ng resplendent above the horizon of the world.4

‘Abdu’l-Bahá identifies tyranny—which might be defined in this context as the inequitable allocation of land and other food producing resources in order to benefit a minority (individual, state, or corporate) at the expense of the majority-as responsible for much

1 ibid. 3 Gleanings, p. 92.

2 World Order OfBaha 'u 'llah. Selected Letters by 4 T ablets of Bahá’u’lláh, pp.66—67. Shoghz' Effendi (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974), p. 32.

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human misery: When we see poverty allowed to reach a condition Ofstarvation, He said, it is a sure Sign that somewhere we Shall find tyranny.1

Equity is parallel With justice. It is ...the most fundamental among human virtues, Baha’u’llah wrote. The evaluation of all things must needs depend upon it.2 Equity as applied to agriculture might be defined as a fair sharing of production and, more importantly, of food producing resources. The obj ective of an equitable agricultural policy must be to increase not production but the inclusiveness of productivity and the sharing of production.

Globalism and decentralization

The Writings call for the establishment of a just world community. At present, the connections that exist in the world are material connections—transnational systems of commerce, trade, communication, et cetera. These connections are shaped by the ethics of power, profiteering, colonialism, and production based on exploitation of people and resources. The role of spiritually informed people at this time is to contribute to a planet united in justice, equity, and real co-operation as expressed by the Guardian:

The unity of the human race, as envisioned by Baha’u’llah, implies the establishment of a world commonwealth. This commonwealth must, as far as we can visualise it, consist of a world legislature, Whose members will, as the trustees of the whole of mankind, ultimately control the entire resources of all the component nations, and will enact such laws as shall be required to regulate life, satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples... The economic resources of the world will be organised, its sources of raw materials will be tapped and fully utilised, its markets Will be coérdinated and developed, and the distribution of its products Will be equitably regulated... Destitution on the one hand, and gross accumulation of ownership on the other, Will disappear. . ..3

The implications of this paragraph are so far-reaching that a few of its phrases bear repeating: “. . .a world legislature, whose members Will, as the trustees of the whole of mankind, ultimately control the entire resources of the component nations. . ..” That is, use of the air, land and sea Will all fall under an international system of law. And these laW-makers, “. . .the trustees of the whole of mankind. .. will enact such laws as shall. .. satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples. . . .” This is a very new and exciting concept of the sharing of natural resources.

This idea of globalism, “. . .repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and disclaims all attempts at uniformity on the other. Its watchword is unity in diversity. . . 3’4

A global approach is required for a healthy food and agriculture system, unlike the current system Which is subj ect to practices Which undercut national and local self—reliance. The foundation of a Bahá’í commonwealth Will be mature, self—reliant localities With a solid agrarian base.

Interdependence and self—reliance

Globalism and decentralization correspond to interdependence and self—reliance, qualities required to build good order. The Writings suggest an economy based first on individual and

1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris T alks: Addresses given by 2 Gleanings, p. 203. ‘Abdu ’I—Bahd in Paris in 1911—1912 (London: 3 World Order, pp. 203—204. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1979), p.153. 4 ibid., p. 42.

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and family, local and national self—reliance, paired with a sophisticated interdependence on the global, national and local levels. To help us Visualize a Bahá’í social order, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá used a number of organic (purposely non—mechanistie?) analogies——the family, the human body, a garden.1 His analogy of the household corresponds to the concept of oikos (literally household), the root of the words ecology and economy.2 Ecology deals with the relationships between organisms and their environment, while economy in this context can refer to regulation and management of relationships in order to assure the well-being of both part and whole. Using this analogy we can View economies then as management of resources for the benefit of whole communities, rather than competition in a struggle to capture wealth for individuals, a ruling class, or a state monopoly.

The Writings outline a new economic order in skeletal form, which Will be fleshed out under the guidance of the Universal House of Justice.

1. Economic conditions are reflections of spiritual conditions; thus the ultimate economic solutions to problems lie in spiritual transformation.

We ask God to endow human souls with justice so that they may be fair, and may strive to provide for the comfort of all, that each member of humanity may pass his life in the utmost comfort and welfare. Then this material world will become the very paradise of the Kingdom, this elemental earth will be in a heavenly state and all the servants of God will live in the utmost joy, happiness and gladness. We must all strive and concentrate all our thoughts in order that such happiness may accrue to the world of humanity.3

2. Ownership of the means of production and tenure of land will take a variety of forms. Entirely new systems, or those little used or known, may be employed. Private ownership is safeguarded, but state ownership or control will also have a role to play. That Certain trustees will be elected by the people in a given village to look after these [economic] transactions“ suggests one new path the future Will follow.

In reality, so far great injustice has befallen the common people. Laws must be made because it is impossible for the laborers to be satisfied with the present system. They will strike every month and every year. Finally, the capitalists will lose. ... In the Bolshevistic principles equality is effected through force. The masses who are opposed to the people of rank and to the wealthy class desire to partake of their advantages. But in the divine teachings equality is brought about through a ready willingness to share. ...This equality is the result of the lofty characteristics and noble attributes of mankind.5

3. Although our Vision must be world-embracing, the initial stage of economic reconstruction is at the local level, beginning with agricultural reform.

First and foremost is the principle that to all the members of the body politic shall be given the greatest achievements of the world of humanity. Each one shall have the utmost welfare and well-being. To solve the problem we must begin with the farmer; there we Will lay a foundation for system and order because the peasant class and the agricultural class exceed other classes in the importance of their service.6

1 ibid. 4 ibid., p. 40. 2 Foundations, pp. 3843. 5 ibid., p. 44. 3 ibid., p. 43. 6 ibid., p. 39.

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4. Village reconstruction Will involve the establishment of a central community institu tion, termed the “general storehouse” or “House of F inance,” directed by a democratically elected council of trustees responsible for the allocation of resources and services.

In every village there must be established a general storehouse which will have a number of revenues.

T he first revenue will be that of the tenth or tithes.

The second revenue (will be derived) from the animals.

The third revenue, from the minerals, that is to say, every mineprospected or discovered, a third thereof will go to this vast storehouse.

T he fourth is this: whosoever dies without leaving any heirs all his heritage will go to the general storehouse.

F ifth, if any treasures shall be found on the land they should be devoted to this storehouse.

All these revenues will be assembled in this storehouse.

As to the first, the tenths or tithes: we will consider a farmer, one of the peasants. We will look into his income. We will find out, for instance, what is his annual revenue and also what are his expenditures. Now, if his income be equal to his expenditures, from such a farmer nothing whatever will be taken. T hat is, he will not be subjected to taxation of any sort, needing as he does all his income. Anotherfarmer may have expenses running up to one thousand dollars we will say, and his income is two thousand dollars. From such an one a tenth will be required, because he has a surplus.

T hen there must be considered such emergencies as follows: a certain farmer whose expenses run up to ten thousand dollars and whose income is only five thousand, he will receive necessary expenses from the storehouse. F ive thousand dollars will be allotted to him so he will not be in need.

T hen the orphans will be looked after, all of whose expenses will be taken care of. The cripples in the village—all their expenses will be looked after. The poor in the villagetheir necessary expenses will be defrayed. And other members who for valid reasons are incapacitated—the blind, the old, the deafwtheir comfort must be looked after. In the village no one will remain in need or in want...

Certain trustees will be elected by the people in a given village to look after these transactions. T he farmers will be taken care of and if after all these expenses are defrayed any surplus is found in the storehouse it must be transferred to the national treasury.

For larger cities, naturally, there will be a system on a larger scale. Were I to go into that solution the details thereof would be very lengthy.1

5. Farmer workers, indeed all workers, should receive a fair share of profits accrued as a

result of their labor.

1

...the owners of properties, mines and factories should share their incomes with their employees and give a fairly certain percentage of their products to their workingmen in order that the employees may receive: beside their wages, some of the general income of the factory so that the employee may strive with his soul in the work.2

ibid., pp. 39—41. 2 ibid., p. 43.

[Page 1128]1128 THE BAHA’l WORLD 6. Bahá’u’lláh allows the charge of a reasonable rate of interest:

...it is lawful and proper to charge interest on money... However, this is a matter that should be practiced with moderation and fairness. Our Pen Of Glmy hath, as a token of wisdom and for the convenience of the people, desisted from laying down its limit. Nevertheless We exhort the loved ones of God to observe justice and fairness, and to do that which would prompt the friends of God to evince tender mercy and compassion toward each other...1

This provision eases the tremendous burden of high interest on debts which now faces farmers world—wide, and also encourages a more inclusive system of credit.

7. Instructions on inheritance recommend a wide dispersal of property within and also outside of the family of the deceased; this will also aid in limiting concentration of land ownership.

We have divided inheritance into seven categories: to the children, We have allotted nine

parts comprising five hundred and forty shares; to the wife, eight parts comprisingfour hundred and eighty shares; to the father...,' to the mother...; to the brothers...; to the sisters...; and t0 the teachers... .2

8. Redistribution of wealth will be carried forward in international relations. As quoted before,

The economic resources of the world Will be organised, its sources of raw materials will be tapped and fully utilised, its markets will be coordinated and developed, and the distribution of its products will be equitably regulated.3

Equitable patterns of trade, finance, and production will mean maj or change for food and agriculture systems that now bear colonial patterns which Virtually assure poverty in the underdeveloped countries and the accumulation of wealth in the industrial world.

Science, technology, and moderation

Perhaps the most obvious trend in agriculture today is its growing mechanization. Farming increasingly copies the industrial model. The Bahá’í approach promotes modernization to the extent that the application of technology actually aids in the task of nourishing people while conserving resources for future generations. The adoption of modern technology, however, usually outpaces the development of the social structures required to cope with the consequences of mechanization which cause dislocation of the farm population and an everintensified stress on the resource base. These problems are addressed in the Writings. Achieving a sustainable society is central to life’s purpose: All men have been created to cariyforward an ever—advancing civilization.4 The implications for agriculture of this ethic are far—reaching; poor husbandry is Without parallel in its destructiveness of soil and forests and an ethic which prioritizes conServation will drastically alter farm practice. Baha’u’llah states that one purpose of His laws is to protect the earth: Each one of the ordinances We have revealed is a mighty stronghold for the preservation of the world of being.5 The

1 T ablets of Bahá’u’lláh, pp. 133—134. 3 World Order, p. 204. 2 Bahá’u’lláh, The Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Haifa: Bahá’í 4 Gleanings, p. 214. World Centre, 1992), p. 26. 5 T ablets, p. 69.

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Guardian, himself a supporter of conservation efforts, states that the tasks of “protection physical world and heritage future generations... constitute yet another force working for peace and brotherhood.”l

F oreseeing the potential consequences of the technical/scientifie revolution, Bahá’u’lláh warned of its dangers and presented a principle of moderation to guide modernization:

The civilization, so often vaunted by the learned exponents of arts and sciences, will, if allowed to overleap the bounds of moderation, bring great evil upon men. T hus warneth you He Who is the All-Knowing. If carried to excess, civilization will prove as prolific a source of evil as it had been of goodness when kept within the restraints of moderation... All other things are subject to the same principle of moderation.2

Negative aspects of growth and modernization occur When science is divorced from the moderating influence of true religious values. (Humanity) cannotfly with one wing alone. If it tries with the wing of religion alone it will land in the slough of superstition, and if it tries to fly with the wing of science alone it will end in the dreary bog of materialism,3 in the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.

With the love of God all sciences are accepted and beloved, but without it, are fruitless; nay, rather the cause of insanity. Every science is like unto a tree; if the fruit of it is the love of God, that is a blessed tree. Otherwise it is dried wooa’ andfinally a food for fire.4

A Bahá’í approach Will see agricultural science redirected to goals of nourishment, fulfilment, and permanence from those of profit, power, and production at any cost.

A right relationship to the earth

As has been stated, the Bahá’í approach suggests a paradigm of unity embracing all of creation. The separateness of man from nature Which is seen in modem agriculture must be reconsidered in this light. The Writings provide valuable insights on this complex problem, suggesting that a right relationship is threefold, involving attitudes of humility, unity, and detachment.

F irst, we are called upon to honor creation and to humble ourselves before it. The earth is itself a revealer of God.

Whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth is a direct evidence of the revelation within it of the attributes and the names of God, inasmuch as within every atom are enshrined the signs that bear eloquent testimony to the revelation of the Most Great Light.5

Again and again this theme of revelation through creation crops up in the Writings: “No thing have I perceived, except that I perceive God within it, God before it, or God after it. ”6

Every man of discernment, while walking upon the earth feeleth indeed abashed, inasmuch as he is fully aware that the thing which is the source of his prosperity, his wealth, his might, his exaltation, his advancement and power is, as ordained by God, the very earth which is trodden beneath the feet of all men. T here can be no doubt that whoever

1 Shoghi Effendi, Cable to the New Earth Luncheon, 4 Bahá’í World Faith (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing London, England, dated May 23, 1951. Trust, 1976), p. 366.

2 Gleanings, pp. 341—342. 5 Gleanings, p. 177.

3 New Era, p. 214. 6 Bahá’u’lláh quoting Imém ‘Ali, ibid., p. 178.

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A piggerjy project in Liancourt, Haiti, conducted by the local Bahá’í community; 1987.

WORLD

A papayafarm in Dzitya, Yucatan, Mexico, which

Bahd ’z's are working as a rural development project; 1986.

The T ahirih Farm in Moissala, Chad, initiated by the local Bahá’í community as a social and economic development project; 1989.

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is cognisant of this truth, is cleansed and sanctified from all pride, arrogance, and vain glory.1

This attitude of humility is not only important to our spiritual development but underscores the requirement to conserve nature in its wholeness.

Second, the essential unity of man and nature is both implied in the unity principle and stated in several passages:

You are well aware, praise be the Lord, that both interaction and cooperation are evident and proven amongst all beings, whether large or small. In the case oflarge bodies interaction is as manifest as the sun, whilst in the case ofsmall bodies, though interaction be unknown, yet the part is an indication of the whole. All these interactions therefore are connected with that all—embracing power which is their pivot, their centre, their source and their motive power.2

In Some Answered Questions, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá described the mineral, plant, and animal as possessing a spirit.3 A mechanistic understanding of nature is therefore inadequate; more correct is a View of the earth as a whole, living organism. While this concept resembles animism, it is more a balance of ancient Wisdom and contemporary science. The picture is completed as the world of the Manifestation is drawn into the image: ...all parts of the creational world are of one whole... All the parts are subordinate and obedient to the whole. The contingent beings are the branches of the tree oflife while the Messenger of God is the root of that tree.4

Third, although we are taught to honor and live harmoniously with the earth, we are also instructed to become detached from the physical world.

Observe how darkness has overspread the world. In every corner of the earth there is strife, discord and warfare of some kind. Mankind is submerged in the sea ofmaterialism... T hey have no thought beyond earthly possessions and manifest no desire save the passions of this fleeting, mortal existence. T heir utmostpurpose is the attainment ofmaterial livelihood, physical comforts and worldly enjoyments such as constitute the happiness of the animal world rather than the world ofman.

The honor of man is through the attainment of the knowledge of God; his happiness is from the love of God; his joy is in the glad tidings of God; his greatness is dependent upon his servitude to God. Although it is necessary for man to strive for material needs and comforts, his real need is the acquisition of the bounties of God. While possessing physical life, he should lay hold of the life spiritual, and together with bodily comforts and happiness, he Should enjoy divine pleasures and content. T hen is man worthy of the title man; then will he be after the image and likeness of God, for the image of the Merciful consists of the attributes of the heavenly Kingdom.5

Baha’u’llah bids us to meditate upon freedom from this narrow world: Were ye to discover the hidden, the shoreless oceans of My Incorruptible Wealth, ye would, of a

1 Bahá’u’lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 4 Bahá’í World Faith, p. 364. (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1988), p, 44. 5 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation of Universal Peace 2 Bahá’í WorldFaz'th, p. 345. (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1982), p. 335.

3 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishin g Trust, 1981), p. 78; pp. 143—144.

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certainty, esteem as nothing the world, nay the entire creation.1 However, “the world” is clarified by Bahá’u’lláh: Know ye that by 'the world ’ is meant your unawareness of Him Who is your Maker, and your absorption in aught else but Him.2 This clarification is importantwe are not to despise the physical world, but to avoid a shallow perception of our station. The Bahá’í Writings harmonize elements of ancient and modem Views of creation, overcoming unbalanced unity With or detachment from the world. The three—fold relationship of man to nature spelled out in the Writings gives our work on the land a quality of worship.

Agriculture and worship

The relationship between agriculture and worship is ancient. “Agriculture” means literally the cultivation of fields, but behind the word “culture” is the Latin cultus and the Sanscrit kwel, Which means to dwell, to care, and to worship. From the word agriculture, then, we are led to a deeply religious concept imbedded in language.

In this Day, Bahá’u’lláh has designated every kind of work as worship: It is enjoined on every one of you to engage in some occupation, such as crafts, trades, and the like. We have graciously exalted your engagement in such work to the rank of worship unto God, the T rue 0116.3 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá expanded the theme in a letter to a young friend:

T hy letter was received. Praise be to God it imparted the good news of thy health and safety and indicated that thou art ready to enter into an agricultural school. This is highly suitable. Strive as much as possible to become proficient in the science of agriculture for in accordance with the Divine T eachings, the acquisition of sciences and the perfection of arts are considered as acts of worship. If a man engages with all his power in the acquisition of a science or in the perfection of an art, it is as if he has been worshipping God in the churches and temples. T hus as thou enterest a school of agriculture and strivest in the acquisition of that science thou art day and night engaged in acts of worship—acts that are accepted at the threshold of the Almighty. What bounty greater than this that science should be considered as an act of worship and art as service to the Kingdom of God.4

The acceptance of our work as worship depends on the quality, motivation, and direction of our efforts. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stated: ...strive that your actions day by day may be beautiful prayers.5 And, ...all effort and exertion put forth by man from the fullness of his heart is worship, if it is promoted by the highest motives and the will to do service to humanity. This is worship: to serve mankind and to minister to the needs of the people.6 Our work/W0rship becomes worthy to the extent that we assume our responsibility for the land and to each other by implementing sound husbandry in a just and sustainable food system.

The role of women

The important role that women play in agriculture was stressed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá: Woman must especially devote her energies and abilities toward the industrial and agricultural sciences, seeking to assist mankind in that which is most needful. By this means she will demonstrate capability and ensure recognition of equality in the social and economic equation.7

Gleanings, p. 323. 2 ibid., p. 276. 3 T ablets of Baha ’u ’llah, p. 26.

Bahá’í World Faith, pp. 377-378. Paris T alks, p. 81.

ibid., p. 176.

Promulgation, p. 283.

\lONUI-b

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LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS 1133

Emphasis on women’s involvement in agriculture can be understood from at least three points. First, women are in fact the primary agricultural producers in much of the world. In Africa, for example, women are responsible for eighty percent of agricultural production.1 One implication of this statistic is that agricultural development projects should focus on women, rather than men and machines as is often the case now.

A second point is that equal opportunity and responsibility in the agricultural sector contributes to the sexual equality which is a precondition for the appearance of the Kingdom of God on earth. Education is an important avenue for advancing women in agriculture and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá encouraged women to attend agricultural college. In the following quotation He stressed again the importance of equality in educational opportunity and relates it to development and peace:

[Baha’u’llah] promulgated the adoption of the same course of education for man and woman. Daughters and sons mustfollow the same curriculum of study, thereby promoting unity of the sexes. When all mankind shall receive the same opportunity of education and the equality of men and women will be realized, the foundations of war will be utterly destroyed. Without equality this will be impossible because all differences and distinctions are conducive to discord and strife... .2

Third, there is a need to stress qualities associated with “the feminine” in our relationships to the land and with each other. Qualities of nurturance, intuition, empathy, caring, and identification with forces of productivity and fruition are needed in our agricultural work. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá said, ...it is well established in history that where woman has not participated in human aflairs the outcomes have never attained a state of completion and perfection. 0n the other hand, every influential undertaking of the human world wherein woman has been a participant has attained importance. This is historically true and beyond disproof even in religion.3

Exhortations and prohibitions

A number of the exhortations and prohibitions found in the Bahá’í Writings will have an effect on the agricultural sector.

1. Kindness to animals is one principle Which will have wide repercussions in the field of animal husbandry.

O ye friends of God! Ye must not only have kind and mercifulfeelings for mankind, but ye should also exercise the utmost kindness towards every living creature. Educate the children in their infancy in such a way that they may become exceedingly kind and merciful to animals. If an animal is sick they should endeavor to cure it; if it is hungry, they shouldfeed it; if it is thirsty, they should satisfy its thirst; if it is tired, they should give it rest...

This sympathy and kindness is one of the fundamental principles of the divine kingdom.4

His warnings in other places about the need for kindness even to the lower creatures will have further repercussions on all aspects of our interaction with ecosystems. May Maxwell’s observations in this regard are interesting: “‘Abdu’l-Bahá said that we should always be kind

1 Karl, Marilee, Women in Development, 1983. 3 ibid., p. 134. 2 Promulgation, p. 175. 4 Bahá’í World Faith, pp. 373—374.

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and merciful to every creature; that cruelty was sin and that the human race should never injure any of God’s creatures, but ought to be always careful to do nothing to diminish or exterminate any order of living thing. . . .”1

In this light we will have to redesign farm practice to avoid destruction of habitat and to reduce or eliminate practices which are destructive to animal organisms. This thinking is in keeping with ecological science which recognises the important role played by all levels of creatures in the functioning of whole systems.

2. The change in human diet away from eating meat will have a deep impact on resource allocation. Now, about one half of all grain protein is fed to livestockma very inefficient use of protein. In the future that grain will be available for human consumption.

As humanity progresses, meat will be used less and less, for the teeth of man are not carnivorous. For example, the lion is endowed with carnivorous teeth, which are intended for meat, and ifmeat be not found, the lion starves... The human teeth, the molars, are formed to grind grain. The front teeth, the incisors, are for fruits, etc. It is, therefore, quite apparent according to the implements for eating that man ’s food is intended to be grain and not meat. When mankind is more fully developed, the eating of meat will gradually cease.2

3. Adherence to just one paragraph from The Kitab-i-Aqdas will dramatically change agricultural resource allocation:

Gambling and the use of opium have been forbidden unto you. Eschew them both, 0 people, and be not of those who transgress. Beware of using any substance that induceth sluggishness and torpor in the human temple and inflicteth harm upon the body. We, verily, desire for you naught save what shall profit you, and to this bear witness all created things, hadye but ears to hear.3

a. Speculation on land and agricultural commodities will be either moderated or eliminated in View of this injunction against gambling.

b. The prohibition on opium, marijuana, and other narcotics will release tremendous resources for food production. (N ow, marijuana is surpassed only by corn as a cash crop in the United States.)

0. Similarly, the terrible waste of food for alcohol production will be eliminated. In the future the fruit, grains and vegetables used in this industry will be available to feed humanity.

4. The tobacco industry will be phased out as more and more people read this Tablet of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:

Among these latter is smoking tobacco, which is dirty, smelly, ofi’ensive—an evil habit, and one the harmfulness of which gradually becometh apparent to all. Every qualified physician hath ruled—and th‘is hath also been proven by tests—that one of the components of tobacco is a deadly poison, and that the smoker is vulnerable to many and various diseases. This is why smoking hath been plainly sefforth as repugnant... .4

1 Maxwell, May, An Early Pilgrimage. (Oxford: 3 The Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 75. George Ronald, 1974) p. 29. 4 Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu ‘l-Bahd, 2 Promulgation, p. 170—171. pp. 147—148.

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In summary, agricultural development is a “fundamental principle” for the advancement of mankind, linked to the establishment of the Most Great Peace. For this reason we are instructed to give “special regard” to agricultural development—development shaped by and serving the spiritual causes of unity, justice and equity. The agricultural system must be redesigned to ensure economic Viability for producers in self-reliant communities. These communities must then be seen as Vital cells in a global organism founded on eo-operative interdependence.

We are asked to bring a spiritual sense to our agricultural work, to elevate it to a form of worship, and in the process to transform our inner lives to correspond to God’s Will revealed in Word and nature. We are asked to conduct our lives individually and collectively in such fashion as to ensure a sustainable society by balancing technical and spiritual development. We are given a Vision of our relatedness to the earth but are called upon to take full responsibility for carryng forward an ever-advancing civilization.

How can we aid in this transformation? We can make every effort to allow the creative influence of the Spirit to inform our thought, feeling, and action. We can pay full attention to the consequences of what we do as we share in the bounty of the earth and the work of producers—when we pursue education and research, or as we work on the land. The task of agricultural development cannot be carried out in isolation from the process of spiritual development, recognising, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says, When the love of God is established, eveiything else will be realized.1

As we witness in our time the failure of agriculture to meet even the basic need of the people for nourishment and watch the continued decline of soil and other resources for production, we can avoid despair and paralysis by remembering that the destiny that we have been promised is approaching, and that while it may seem impossible in any significant way to alleviate the growing suffering of humanity ...thanks to the unfailing grace of God, the loving kindness oins favoured ones, the unrivalled endeavours of wise and capable souls, and the thoughts and ideas of the peerless leaders of this age, nothing whatsoever can be regarded as unattainable.2

1 Promulgation, p. 239. 2 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá quoted in World Order, p. 38.

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6. THE SPIRITUAL ROLE OF AR

LUDWIG TUMAN ‘

THE Bahá’í Writings make numerous references to the arts, and from these references we can attempt to glean a conception of the nature and ideal role of art. In this discussion, the term “art” Will be used broadly to refer to practices such as painting, poetry, dance, and music, as well as to the design arts such as architecture, industrial design, and fashion design. In addition, art is considered to encompass crafts such as pottery, stained-glass setting, and rug-weaving. The following passages from the Writings refer to all kinds of art and indeed apply to all skills and sciences as well. Regarding the nature of the arts and sciences, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote:

What bounty greater than this that science should be considered as an act of worship and art as service to the Kingdom of God.1

In this great dispensation, art (or a profession) is identical with an act ofworship and this is a clear text of the Blessed Perfection.2

In one of his talks, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stated:

In the Bahá’í' Cause arts, sciences and all crafts are (counted as) worship... Briefly, all efi’ort and exertion putforth by man from the fullness of his heart is worship, if it is prompted by the highest motives and the will to do service to humanity.3

That the arts and sciences must be of benefit to humankind was emphasized by Bahá’u’lláh in the Tablet of Maqsfidz

Of all the arts and sciences, set the children to studying those which will result in advantage to man, will ensure his progress and elevate his rank.4

To learn the arts and sciences is “the greatest glory of mankind,” but, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explained, only When a certain condition is met:

Although to acquire the sciences and arts is the greatest glory ofmankina’, this is so only on condition that man’s river flow into the mighty sea, and draw from God’s ancient source H is inspiration ....

...By the one true God! If learning be not a means ofaccess to Him, the Most Manifest, it is nothing but evident loss.5

1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha’ in Paris in 1911 (London: Bahá’í 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1978), Publishing Trust, 1969), pp. 176—77. p. 145. 4 Bahá’u’lláh, T ablets ofBaha 'u 'llah revealed after

2 Bahá’í World Faith (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing the Kitab-i-Aqdas (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, Trust, 1956), p. 377. 1978), p. 168.

3 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris T alks: Addresses Given by 5 Selections, p. 110.

This article is a modified version of one of twelve chapters in a book by the same author entitled Mirror of the Divine: Art in the Bahá’í World Community (Oxford: George Ronald, 1993)‘

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LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS 1 137

One of the gifts sent from the Bahá’ís of Alaska to the Bahá’ís ' Of Samoa for the House of Worship in Apia.

The arts and sciences depend upon the pervasive grace of the Manifestation of God, so much so that they owe their very existence and life to the Manifestation. To this effect, Bahá’u’lláh wrote:

The Sun of T ruth is the Word of God upon which dependeth the education Ofthose who are endowed with the power of understanding and ofutterance. It is the true spirit and the heavenly water, through whose aid and gracious providence all things have been and will be quickened. Its appearance in every mirror is conditioned by the colour of that mirror. For instance, when its light is cast upon the mirrors of the hearts of the wise, it bringeth forth wisdom. In like manner when it manifesteth itself in the mirrors of the hearts of craftsmen, it unfoldeth new and unique arts....1

To the same effect, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is quoted in Star of the West as having said:

The Divine T eachers have the innate Light; T hey have knowledge and understanding of all things in the universe, the rest of the world receives its light from T hem, and through T hem the arts and sciences are revived in each age.2

On another occasion, ‘Abdu’LBaha indicated that the radiance of the arts is but a reflection of Baha’u’llah’s divine and all—encompassing knowledge: Again among His signs is the dawning sun oins knowledge, and the rising moon oins arts and skills.”3

When in London, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was reported to have said the following regarding the influence of the Holy Spirit and the highest purpose of art:

All Art is a gift of the Holy Spirit. When this light shines through the mind ofa musician, it manifests itself in beautiful harmonies. Again, shining through the mind ofa poet, it is seen in fine poetry and poetic prose. When the Light of the Sun of T ruth inspires the

Bahá’u’lláh, previously untranslated Tablet, cour- 2 Star of the West, The Bahá’í' Magazine, vol. XXII, tesy of the Bahá’í World Centre. no. 3 (June 1931), p. 87. 3 Selections, p. 15.

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mind of a painter, he produces marvellous pictures. T hese gifts are fulfilling their highest purpose, when showingforth the praise of God.1

The principle that art is a form of worship is applied to a specific art form in the following passage from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:

I rejoice to hear that thou takest pains with thine art, for in this wonderful new age, art is worship. The more thou strivest to perfect it, the closer wilt thou come to God. What bestowal could be greater than this, that one ’s art should be even as the act ofworshipping the Lord? T hat is to say, when thy fingers grasp the paint brush, it is as if thou wert at prayer in the T emple.2

The idea that the arts have to do with the worship and glorification of God is also reflected in a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice:

...Our Sacred Writings confirm it [music] as one of the great arts by which mankind can express its worship of God and joy in His creation ...It is from their [Bahá’í artists’] desire to glorify God through their creative activities that new arts and sciences will gradually develop to enrich a new culture.3

Running throughout the above passages like golden threads are three themes regarding the nature and purpose of the arts and sciences. We might summarize them as follows: A11 arts and sciences are for the worship and glorification of God; the arts and sciences should be a means of access to God; and arts and sciences should be of service to humankind. In reality, these are but different ways of saying the same thing. For in the Bahá’í teachings, the worship of God, the gaining of divine knowledge, and pure—hearted service to humanity are inseparably woven together in the golden brocade of spiritual growth. We saw in a quotation above how ‘Abdu’l-Bahá equated worship with service. In the following passages, moreover, Bahá’u’lláh reveals that the knowledge of God and access to God depend upon one’s deeds, upon one’s observance of the divine teachings. Since the teachings are concerned with humankind’s spiritual and social well~being, to observe the teachings is to render service:

T he first T ajalli [Efi’ulgence] which hath dawned from the Day-Star of T ruth is the knowledge of God—exaltea’ be His gZOij. And the knowledge of the King of everlasting days can in no wise be attained save by recognizing Him Who is the Bearer Of the Most Great Name [Baha’u’llah]... Attainment unto the Divine Presence can be realized solely by attaining His presence... T rue belief in God and recognition oinm cannot be complete save by acceptance of that which He hath revealed and by observance ofwhatsoever hath been decreed by Him and set down in the Book by the Pen OfGlory.4

Far man’s knowledge of God cannot develop fully and adequately save by observing whatsoever hath been ordained by Him and is sefforth in His heavenly Book.5

1 Quoted in Blomfield, Lady, The Chosen Highway compilation prepared by the Research Department (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1940), p. 167. of the Universal House of Justice. p. 2. 2 “Extracts from the Writings and from the letters 3 Unpublished letter, dated 22 F ebruary 1980.

of the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice 4 T ablets, p. 50. on the Arts and Architecture.” Unpublished ibid., p. 268.

Ln

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By emphasizing deeds, Baha’u’llah obliges the individual to make effort, to develop personal potential, to grow spiritually toward the fulfillment of the purpose for which each was created to know and to worship God.1 In this light, all the foregoing appears to resolve itself into one principle: the common, the most general and fundamental aim of the arts and sciences, indeed of all human endeavors, however material or mundane they may seem, is to foster spiritual growth.

ART AS A MEANS OF ENNOBLEMENT

Beyond this general principle, however, questions arise. How is God worshipped and glorified through the arts? How are the arts a means of access to God and a service to humankind? How can the arts foster spiritual growth?

In the Bahá’í teachings, the arts are associated with certain spiritual and educational roles that have mystical, moral, and social facets. In one of his talks, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was recorded as saying, Music is an important means to the education and development of humanity... He immediately added:

...but the only true way is through the T eachings of God. Music is like this glass.... and the T eachings of God, the utterances of God, are like the water. When the glass or chalice

is absolutely pure and clear, and the water is perfectlyfresh and limpid, then it will confer Life...2

A conversation ‘Abdu’l-Bahá held with an actor, while in London, was described by a believer as follows:

An actor mentioned the drama, and its influence. “The drama is of the utmost importance,” said ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. “It has been a great educational power in the past; it will be so again.” He described how as a young boy he witnessed the Mystery Play of ‘Ali’s Betrayal and Passion, and how it affected him so deeply that he wept and could not sleep for many nights.3

The far-reaching implications of this statement seem worthy of consideration. For the drama is not a single art form but usually a combination of two or more. Traditionally it can, and in many parts of the world does, involve poetry or dramatic prose, dance, music, and several auxiliary arts. Part of the “educational power” of such arts lies in their ability to probe the significance and preserve the memory of important historical events, to reinforce the divine teachings and exhortations, to demonstrate the consequences of obedience or disobedience to spiritual law, and to reveal the human soul in aotion—the process of spiritual growth. In short, such arts share with other arts the ability to impart an understanding of spiritual reality, and this is one way they meet ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s requirement that the arts and sciences be “a means of access to Him, the Most Manifest.” In so doing, they render a service on a mystical plane; that is to say, they help strengthen the relation between humanity and its heavenly king.

1

In the Short Obligatory Prayer, revealed by Bahd ’t’ Writings on Music. Comp. Research Depart Baha’u’llah, the believer recites: “I bear witness, O ment of the Universal House of Justice (London: my God, that Thou hast created me to know Thee Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1973), p. 8.

and to worship Thee.” (Bahá’í' Prayers, Wilmette: 3 ‘Abdu ’l-Bahd in London: Addresses and Notes of Publishing Trust, 1982), pt 4. Conversations (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,

1982), p. 93.

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Roya Aschari playing the violin during

Art Forum ’91,

W organized by the

Baha ’2' Association for the Arts and held at De Poort, Netherlands.

A further example of the service the arts can render on the mystical plane is given in the following passage, in Which ‘Abdu’l-Bahá refers to music as a means of helping to draw the souls toward the radiant Source of divine love:

T hank thou God that thou art instructed in music and melody, singing with pleasant voice the glorification and praise of the Eternal, the Living. I pray to God that thou mayest employ this talent in prayer and supplication, in order that the souls may become quickenea’, the hearts may become attracted and all may become inflamed with the fire of the love ofGoa’!1

However, on a moral plane, where the relation between artist and public is involved, another kind of service comes to light. As expressed by the Universal House of Justice:

...music, art, and literature ... are to represent and inspire the noblest sentiments and highest aspirations and should be a source of comfort and tranquillity for troubled souls. . .. 2

Moreover, Viewed in its educational role as an edifying and uplifting power, art finds its moral responsibilities implied in ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s outline of the cardinal principles underlying Bahá’í education from the cradle up to the age ofmanhood. One of the principles, He said, is

...service to the cause of morality, raising the moral tone of the students, inspiring them with the sublimest ideals of ethical refinement, teaching them altruism, inculcating in their lives the beauty ofholiness and the excellency ofvirtue and animating them with the excellences and perfections Of the religion of God.3

Since the Bahá’í Faith aims to provide spiritual and moral education to the Whole of humanity, the above passage will be seen to apply not only to students but also to people of

1 Tablets Of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Comp. AlbertR. Windust 2 The Bahá’í World, v01. XVIII (1979—1983) (Chicago: Bahá’í Publishing Society, 1916), p. 512. (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1986), p. 358. Bahá’í Writings on Music, p. 3. 3 Quoted in Star of the West, v01. IX, no. 9

(20 August 1918), p. 98.

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whatever age or occupation, and bears relevance not only to academic curricula but also to the educational aspect of art.

At yet another level——the social plane, involving human relationsw—the arts have a Vital service to render: that of helping to unite humankind. On this theme, Bahá’u’lláh wrote:

The source ofcrafts, sciences and arts is the power afreflection. Make ye every efi’ort that out of this ideal mine there may gleam forth such pearls ofwz'sa’om and utterance as will promote the well-being and harmony of all the kindreds Of the earth.1

This power of reflection, the source of the arts, is one of the faculties the Creator has bestowed upon human beings. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, too, said such powers should be employed for the attainment of human unity:

The truth is that God has endowed man with virtues, powers and idealfaculties.... We must thank Godfor these bestowals, for these powers He has given us, for this crown He has placed upon our heads.

How shall we utilize these gifts and expend these bounties? By directing our efforts toward the unification of the human race. We must use these powers in establishing the oneness of the world Ofhumam'ty....2

Turning again to the educative influence of the arts, we find that social harmony and world unity are also included in the above-cited outline of educational aims given by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Education must seek

...the elimination of the causes ofignorance and social evils.... [and] service to the oneness of the world ofhumanity; so that each student may consciously realize that he is a brother to all mankind, irrespective afreligion or race.3

The arts are especially well suited to promote unity, the central theme of the Bahá’í Revelation. F irst, when addressed to the spiritual life of humanity, the arts can highlight that which is universal. Second, their influence can be far~reachingz a single work of art may touch the lives of thousands, even millions of people, and in some cases may continue to do so for centuries. And third, as time goes on, the cumulative effect of the work of thousands of Bahá’í artists can be expected to contribute substantially to the emergence of a world environment, a world climate of thought and feeling with which all peoples feel themselves identified.

The Bahá’í teachings appear to indicate, in sum, that the principal aims and highest aspirations of the arts are as follows:

- On a mystical plane, to impart spiritual knowledge, attract the souls to the beauty of the All-Glorious, and brighten the flame of God’s love;

' On a moral plane, to “represent and inspire the noblest sentiments and highest aspirations,” foster a desire for moral eicellence and obedience to the divine teachings, and “be a source of comfort and tranquillity for troubled souls”;

- On a social plane, to promote social well-being, harmony, world unity, and universal brotherhood.

T ablets, p. 72. (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1972), p. 62. 2 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Foundations of World Unity 3 Star, vol. IX, no. 9 (20 August 1918), p. 98.

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These aims apply to the arts that are called “the fine arts.” They also appear to characterize the spiritual side of the service rendered by the design arts and the crafts. In other words, they apply as much to urban design as to poetry, as much to rug—weaving as to music. It is in realizing such aims that the arts glorify and become a means of access to God, render a service to humanity, and foster spiritual growth.

It would be an error to consider that the mystical aims are spiritual while the moral and social ones are not. All three aims are spiritual in nature and are integral parts of what we could call the spiritual role of art. For in the Bahá’í teachings, as we have seen, worship, morality, and social relations are inseparable parts of a way of life. Indeed, it is through a divinely ordained, world—ernbracing administrative and social order that the Bahá’í Faith channels and incarnates the bounties of a life-giving Spirit, thereby regenerating the spiritual life of the millions of individuals who constitute the body of its world community.

Due to their ability to render services of a mystical, moral, and social nature, the arts constitute an effective means of conveying spiritual teachings to the public. For in realizing such services, the arts are, directly or indirectly, making divine precepts known throughout society, diffusing the spirit of oneness and helping to deepen the understanding, the love, unity, and faith of humankind. The great potential of the arts in this domain was described in a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi:

That day will the Cause will spread like wildfire when its spirit and teachings will be presented on the stage or in art and literature as a whole. Art can better awaken such noble sentiments than cold rationalizing, especially among the mass of the people.

We have to wait only a few years to see how the spirit breathed by Bahá’u’lláh will find expression in the work of the artists. What you and some other Bahá’ís are attempting are only faint rays that precede the effulgent light of a glorious morn.1

Let us attempt to summarize. Art can impart a knowledge of things divine; it can also stir yearning for the Kingdom, strengthen faith in God, help instill fear of God’s justice and hope for his mercy, and fan the flame of the love of his beauty; and it can, thereby, affect the will to act, to obey God’s commandments, and to live in harmony with God’s teachings, which are the essence of morality and the source of spiritual growth. In so doing, art assists humankind to attain the very purpose of its existence: to know and to worship God. Toward this end, moreover, art can promote the formation of praiseworthy character; can disseminate the divine teachings; can strengthen, through its unifying influence, the bonds of harmony and human fellowship; and can reinforce throughout the world the sense of common identity shared by members of the Bahá’í community.

All such services can be implied, in a word, by saying that art has to do With ennoblernent: its highest purpose is to ennoble the individual soul and the collective life of humanity.

ART AND RELIGION

The reader familiar with the Bahá’í teachings will note that the ideal aims of art outlined above are in fact among the principal objectives of the Bahá’í Faith itself and that these aims harmonize with the spiritual values upheld by the teachings of the world’s major

I From a letter dated 10 October 1932 to an individ— Hornby (New Delhi: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,

ual believer (Bahá’í News No. 73 [May 1933] p. 7. 1988), p. 98. Quoted in Lights oquz'dance. Comp. Helen

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religions. What is the explanation of this unity of purpose? It is that art, When quickened by the spirit and teachings of religion, reflects (on an infinitely lower level) the generative process set into motion by the Word of God and attempts in its humble way to reinforce the spiritual and social handiwork of the Almighty. This is the principle implied in ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s statement that Music is an important means to the education and development of humanity, but the only true way is through the T eachings of God. 1 This is also the reason why the arts, throughout the history of civilization, and particularly during its spiritual high tides, have been intimately associated with religion.

Here, though, one needs to distinguish between religion and religious community. In speaking of religion as a whole, our focus is not upon the institutions, dogmas, superstitions, rites, or customs associated with particular historical communities. Our focus is rather upon the body of spiritual and moral teachings that constitute the essence and common foundation of religion, as revealed by the Messengers of God. In the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:

Religion... is not a series afbeliefs, a set ofcustoms; religion is the teachings of the Lord God, teachings which constitute the very life of humankind, which urge high thoughts upon the mind, refine the character, and lay the groundwork for man’s everlasting honour.2

It is true that art, throughout history, has been placed in the service of the dogmas, superstitions, and customs of particular communities. But parallel with this, art has been employed to reinforce the fundamental spiritual aims of religion as defined by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.

It is also true that some religious authorities, at some points in history, have imposed their Views and their will on artists and obliged them to serve the interests of religious institutions. But that alone would not explain the worldwide and long-enduring intimacy between religion and art. The intimacy, rather, is a spontaneous outcome of the awe or the love artists have borne toward the Creator (however diverse the forms in which they have conceived of that Creator), recognizing in religion a reservoir of God’s grace to humankind, acknowledging that in the spiritual and moral teachings of religion are found the fountain and the bedrock of their civilization, and desiring to promote, by embodying such teachings in their works of art, the highest interests of their fellows.

Since the sixteenth century, the arts in the West have steadily drifted away from a religious Viewpoint—~a process that in the twentieth century has spread to most parts of the world. Humanity, having turned away from God, has fallen into a spiritual and moral decline and is now descending to its utter depths. The Universal House of Justice indicated that the arts have not escaped the effects of the general chaos this spiritual decline has unleashed:

Every discerning eye clearly sees that the early stages of this chaos have daily manifestations affecting the structure of human society; its destructive forces are uprooting time-honoured institutions. The same destructive forces are also deranging the political, economic, scientific, literary, and moral equilibrium of the world and are destroying the fairest fruits of the present civilization.... Even music, art, and literature, Which are to represent and inspire the noblest sentiments and highest aspirations and should be a source of comfort and tranquillity for troubled souls, have strayed from the straight path and are now the mirrors of the soiled hearts of this confused, unprincipled, and disordered

age.3

1 3

Bahá’í Writings, p. 8. From a circular letter, dated 10 February 1980, pub2 Selections, pp. 52-53. lished in The Bahá’í World, vol. XVIII. p. 358‘

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During an ’awareness camp ’ held in Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh, India, Bahd ’z’s are using street theatre as a means ofteaching people principles on development themes such as health, education and agricultural issues. May 1988.

For the Universal House of Justice to have made such a strongly worded generalization, the decline blighting present-day society must have affected the spiritual and moral content of art to a high degree. If what constitutes religion, according to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, are divine teachings which urge high thoughts upon the mind, refine the character, and lay the groundwork for man ’s everlasting honour,1 then art such as that described above would have to be considered either irreligious or non-religious. Nonetheless, even in the twentieth century, a significant number of works of art can be found that reflect the higher inclinations of the human spirit, inclinations “towards transcendence, a reaching towards an invisible realm, towards the ultimate reality, that unknowable essence of essences called God”.2 The current state of affairs, then, does not disprove that the bond between art and religion is natural, Vital, and timeless; rather, it simply indicates that present-day civilization has descended spiritually to a low-water mark and that the nonreligious attitude currently reflected in the greater part of art constitutes one of the transient exceptions to a rule that has prevailed throughout thousands of years of world history. The matter is confirmed by the history of the arts in the various regions of the world.3

2

3

Selections, p. 53. v Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace (October 1985), p. 4.

In some cases, during a certain period of a given civilization, the State may appear to have been a more important patron of the arts than was religion. But even when the artist worked for a king, a court, or some other temporal institution, it should be remembered that throughout the world, prior to the

emergence of modern civilization, the worldview in which artists were immersed, in which they lived, and to which they gave expression in their works, was usually a religious one. The concept that art is a manifestation of cosmology is explored in Ludwig Turnan, “Toward Critical F oundations” (Tuman, Ludwig. “Toward Critical Foundations for a World Culture of the Arts,” World Order 9.4 [Summer 1975]: pp. 17—21.)

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With respect to existing primitive societies and to prehistoric peoples, in Whose cases a history of art is impossible to constmct, anthropology adds its confirmation that, on the evidence available, art and religious belief have universally gone hand in hand. In sum: the traditional arts of Oceania, of sub-Saharan Africa, of the pre-Columbian Americas, of Islamic domains, of Christendom, of ancient Greece and Rome, of the ancient Near East, and of the peoples of South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Far East, one and all give eloquent testimony to the abiding service at has rendered to the spiritual and moral aims of religion. In its highest role, art is a handmaiden of divine truth.

What observations could be made regarding the relation between religion and art, in the case of the Bahá’í Faith? First, the important distinction between religion and religious community should again be drawn.1 In its relation With the Bahá’í Faith, the Bahá’í world community has a favorable position. The Writings of Bahá’u’lláh and those of the authorized interpreters of his Word provide for an institutional order that guides the affairs of the Bahá’í community. The Writings stipulate the few, simple rites that are observed; preclude the fotmation of rigid, divisive dogmas; and shield the community against schism by means of an explicit and inviolable Covenant. While such measures are indispensable and greatly aid the community in approaching the spiritual ideals upheld by the Bahá’í teachings, it should nonetheless be remembered that the religion and its followers are different entities. The artist’s relation With the divine teachings of the Bahá’í Faith is one matter; the altist’s relation to fellow believers is another.

Another important aspect of religion, as conceived of in the Bahá’í teachings, is that it envelops the Whole of human life. For many, this is a difficult notion to accept. The world has grown accustomed, in the twentieth century, to seeing a Wide gulf between religion and other human concerns. Indeed, many have come to regard this breach as the normal state of affairs. Yet to separate religion from the art of living has proven fatal, for the gap between the two has been filled by that materialistic View of life Which Baha’u’llah regarded as the chief factor in precipitating the dire ordeals and world—shaking crises that afflict all peoples?

The Bahá’í Faith restores the Vital bond between religion and daily living. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá emphasized that deeds are the only sure proof of faith:

For in this holy Dispensation, the crowning glmy Of bygone ages and cycles, true Faith is no mere acknowledgment of the Unity of God, but rather the living of a life that will manifest all the peifections and virtues implied in such belief... .3

The Universal House of J ustice draws this distinction between religion and religious community:

“. . .true religion, far from being the product solely of human striving after truth, is the fruit of the creative Word of God which, with divine power, transforms human thought and action. A Bahá’í, through this faith in, this ‘conscious knowledge’ of, the reality of divine Revelation, can distinguish, for instance, between Christianity, which is the divine message given by Jesus of Nazareth, and the development of Christendom, which is the history of what men did with that message in subsequent centuries; a distinction Which has become blurred if not entirely obscured in current Christian theology. A Bahá’í scholar conscious of this distinction will not

make the mistake of regarding the sayings and beliefs of certain Bahá’ís at any one time as being the Bahá’í Faith. The Bahá’í Faith is the Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh: His Own Words as inteipreted by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and the Guardian”. (Universal House of Justice. “The Challenge and Promise of Bahá’í Scholarship.” In The Bahá’í World. vol. XVII [1974—1978]. (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1986). p. 195.)

Shoghi Effendi, Citadel ofFaith.‘ Messages to America, 1947—1957 (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1965), p. 125.

The Bahá’í Yearbook, vol. I [1925—1926] (New York: Bahá’í Publishing Committee, 1926), p. 2.

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Further still, in the following passages revealed by Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, we find that every aspect of life comes under the sheltering shade of the divine teachings and that every detail of civilization derives from the creative potential latent in such teachings:

Weigh not the Book of God with such standards and sciences as are current amongst you, for the Book itself is the unerring balance established amongst men. In this most perfect balance whatsoever the peoples and kindreds Of the earth possess must be weighed, while the measure of its weight should be tested according to its own standard, did ye but know it.‘

...even the minutest details ofcivilized life derive from the grace of the Prophets of God. What thing of value to mankind has ever come into being which was not first sefforth either directly or by implication in the Holy Scriptures?2

From a Bahá’í perspective, then, religion subsumes all of human life And as art is a part of life, religion also subsumes art. This IS further confirmed by Bah' ’ u’llah’s teaching that the arts and sciences themselves are but reflections of the knowledge of the Manifestation of God, and in each age are revived and stimulated by the leavening spirit the Manifestation releases into the world:

Every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God is endowed with such potency as can instill new life into every human frame... T hrough the mere revelation of the word “Fashioner, ” issuing forth from His lips and proclaiming His attribute to mankind, such power is released as can generate, through successive ages, all the manifold arts which the hands ofman can produce.3

In referring to Jesus Christ, Bahá’u’lláh gave an example of the quickening influence that the Manifestation of God exercises over all aspects of civilization, including the arts:

The deepest wisdom which the sages have uttered, the profoundest learning which any mind hath unfolded, the arts which the ablest hands have produced, the influence exerted by the most potent ofrulers, are but manifestations of the quickening power released by His transcendent, His all-pervasive, and resplendent Spirit.4

Given such unequivocal teachings, to continue to regard art and religion as two separate powers, to continue to hold that art should be independent of religion, would be to perpetuate the fatal cleavage between religion and life that has undermined the basis of present—day civilization.5

1 Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of speak of art and religion in the same way? It should

Baha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 198.

‘Abdu’l- Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization (Wilmette: Bahá” 1Publishing Trust, 1975), p. 96. Gleanings, pp. 141- 142

Gleanings, pp. 85— 86.

Shoghi Effendi wrote that science and religion are

“the two most potent forces in human life” and that,

in the world society anticipated in the Bahá’í Writings, they “will be reconciled, will cooperate, and

will harmoniously develop” (World Order, p. 204).

It might well be asked, therefore: if one can speak of science and religion as distinct forces, why not

be noted that Shoghi Effendi did not state that science is independent of religion, nor did he state that the two are, in all ways, equally potent. The present writer feels that the reconciling of religion and science, as spoken of in the above passage, could be understood as a reconciling of two basic human powers—those of faith and of reason. When faith is not blind but is supported by reason, the result is a religion that Shoghi Effendi described as “scientific in its method” (World Order [1938 ed.] xi). Similarly, when reason is informed and illumined by faith in the revealed Word of God, then science will be practiced with wisdom and will become imbued

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But at this point a clarification should be made. If one says that it is in the nature of art to serve the spiritual, fundamental aims of religion, this does not imply that the content and style of the artist’s work need be determined in all cases by the desires of religious institutions or by the devotional tastes of the religious community. (Here we see one reason why it is important to distinguish between religion and community.) Nor does it imply that one conceives of art as being constrained within the nine walls of the Bahá’í Temple. It implies, rather, that one recognizes life itself as a temple without walls, the sky as a limitless dome that speaks of the Creator’s sovereignty, and religion (in its renewed and purified form: the Revelation of Baha’u’llah) as the sun that rides the dome’s center, shedding light and life on all things.

Viewed from such a perspective, the domain of art would legitimately include everything under the sun, from the first cry of a newborn child to the last breath of a departing soul. To make this statement is not only to affirm the right of artists to treat the entire range of human experience in their work: it is also to recall the holiness of life. It is to affirm that all aspects of life—~both light and darkness, joy and suffering, triumph and setbaokflare contained within the framework of a divinely ordained purpose and are designed by the Creator to be conducive to spiritual growth.1

BEAUTY REFLECTED 1N THE CREATION AND IN ART

It is beyond the scope of this article to attempt even a brief survey of the points of agreement and divergence between established, specific theories of beauty and the outlook derived here from Bahá’í teachings. In one case, however, we need to examine what is not so much a theory as it is a general tendency found in much of current Western thinking on beauty——a

with divine and merciful qualities. In this case, then, we are viewing religion and science in the dimension of their human practice. But to acknowledge that science and religion can be reconciled and cooperate is not necessarily to place them on the same plane. If we view religion not in its human dimension, but rather as an expression of God’s will through divine Revelation, then we find religion to be preeminent. The all-encompassing nature of the divine foundation of religion is affirmed in the following statement made on behalf of the Universal House of Justice: “. . .it should never be overlooked that the Revelation of the Manifestation of God is the standard for all knowledge, and scientific statements and theories, no matter how close they may come to the eternal principles proclaimed by God’s Messenger, are in their very nature ephemeral and limited” (from a letter dated 21 July 1968 to a National Spiritual Assembly). Here again, we are led to conclude that religion envelops all of human life. And as the arts and sciences are parts of human life, religion also subsumes the arts and sciences.

The painter Mark Tobey stated that Shoghi Effendi told him in a conversation that Bahá’í artists are free to produce as they wish. Care should be taken, however, not to make too much of this report: first,

because it is a pilgrim’s note; and second, because it does not specify the nature and extent of the freedom involved. It would be unwarranted to assume, on the basis of this verbal account, that the Bahá’í Faith regards art as being independent of religion (the latter understood as a body of divine teachings). The most that can be safely concluded is that artists, if they wish, can in certain ways be independent of the religious community. When Bahá’í artists operate as individual economic units, the style and content of their work need not respond to the prevailing taste of the religious community or of the Faith’s institutions. Historically, religious institutions often required artistic style to remain within narrow limits. In the Bahá’í community, artists are free to operate independently; even when they produce specifically for the use of the community or its institutions, there will be no official style to which their work will have to conform. Even so, it should be noted that Bahá’í artists remain responsible for the spiritual and moral implications of their work, their ultimate background of reference being the Bahá’í teachings. Moreover, the absence of an official Bahá’í art does not preclude the spontaneous development of an important body of works explicitly dedicated to religious themes.

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tendency that compels attention in a discussion where we are concerned with fundamental concepts.

In the West, there are several theories of beauty reflecting the idea that beauty is an end in itself, that it has no purpose outside the giving of some form of pleasure. The kind of pleasure emphasized may be sensual (as in hedonistic theory). The pleasure may be derived from the intellectual appreciation of design and pattern (as in naturalistic theory). It may arise from the recognition of artistic patterns corresponding to instinctive mental patterns (as in Gestalt theory); from an intuitive appreciation of qualitative Vividness (as in contextualistic theory); from an appreciation of the work of art as an integrated organic whole (as in organistic theory); and from the recognition and appreciation of ideal forms (as in formistic theory). It may also involve satisfaction which the artist derives from the expression of emotion and the public from emotional arousal (as in expressionism). Each theory stresses a different facet of the experience of beauty, but what they have in common is the basic notion that beauty’s essential characteristic is to give sensual, intellectual, or emotional pleasure without higher purpose. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, philosophers and theorists have gone to considerable lengths to elaborate upon this concept.1

What is the origin of this widespread, modern View of beauty? In the late Middle Ages, philosophers of Christian Europe certainly did not look upon beauty as a source of pleasure without purpose, but rather as the attractive power of spiritual perfection.2 Is it a coincidence that modern theories Viewing beauty as an end in itself emerged and were developed in the centuries following the Renaissance, when Europe drifted away from the shores of a religious world outlook into the seas of secularism and materialism?

Surely few would deny that beauty gives pleasure and that such pleasure may be of a sensual, emotional, intellectual, or even spiritual nature. In this regard, the findings of the various modern theories of beauty are most valuable for their analysis and insights into some of the ways in which beauty is experienced. Such studies, however, do not appear to go far enough. They deal intensively With the “how” of beauty, but scarcely With the “why.” They focus on the ways that the experience of beauty engages the senses and the mind but offer little explanation as to what purpose this subtle and delicate process may serve except to give pleasure. The point here is to suggest that pleasure is not the end of beauty; it is only a natural part of the experience that beauty offers.3

The Great Architect designed the creation such that all creatures take pleasure in that which is natural to their lives. The dog enjoys romping about. The infant delights in play.

i

For an overview of occidental theories, see Monroe C. Beardsley, Aesthetics: Problems in the Philosophy OfCriticz'sm (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1981). Aesthetics from Classical Greece to the Present (New York: Macmillan, 1966). Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art (New York: Dover Publications, 1956), p. 112. ‘r

Some theories observe that beauty has educational value because it hones sensory discrimination, or psychological value because it provides a release for pent-up emotions, or social value in that its employment in art can reinforce cultural identity. Such theories, however, stop short of recognizing that beauty affects not only human beings’ sensory, mental, and social life but also affects, above all,

the human soul. The very word aesthetic implies a Viewing of art more as a sensory and mental experience than as a spiritual one. The term therefore appears inappropriate for use in a discussion where the essential nature, purpose, and effect of beauty are held to be spiritual. Coined in the eighteenth century by the thinker Alexander Baumgarten, it takes as its root the Greek aesthesz's, which in Hellenic usage meant simply sense perception or physical sensation. Its opposite is the medical term anaesthetic, referring to the inability to feel such physical sensation. See the article s.v. “aesthetics” in The New Encyclopaedia Britannica; Macropaedia l, p. 150. See also Coomaraswamy, Christian and Oriental Philosophy, pp. 16, 46, and 64.

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The body, when tired after a day’s work, is refreshed by a night of rest. In each of these instances, there is not only pleasure but also divine wisdom in the service of a higher purpose. For exercise is indispensable to the dog’s health. Through play, the child develops

both body and mind. And sleep affords not only a pleasant restoration but also, to the Baha 1, a preparation for further service. In this connection, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote:

...man. must become evanescent in God. Must forget his own selfish conditions that he may thus arise to the station ofsacrifice. It should be to such a degree that if he sleep, it should not be for pleasure, but to rest the body in order to do better, to speak better, to explain more beautifully, to serve the servants ofGoa' and to prove the truths.1

We note that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá did not deny the pleasure involved in sleeping but held that such is not its ultimate purpose.

This principle of pleasure channeled into the service of a divine purpose would seem to apply not only to humanity’s physical life but also to its higher, spiritual life:

It is naturalfor the heart and spirit to take pleasure and enjoyment in all things that show forth symmetry, harmony, and perfection. For instance: a beautiful house, a well designed garden, a symmetrical line, a graceful motion, a well written book, pleasing garments—in fact, all things that have in themselves grace or beauty are pleasing to the heart and spirit...

What is music? It is a combination ofharmonious sounds. What is poetry? It is a symmetrical collection ofwora’s. T herefore, they are pleasing through harmony and rhythm All these have in themselves an organization, and are constructed on natural law. T herefore, they correspond to the order of existence like something which would fit into a mold... When it is so, this affects the nerves, and they affect the heart and spirit.2

These words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, which refer to all the principal mediums (Visual, spatial, gestural, verbal, and auditory) in which art is constituted, show that beauty does indeed give pleasure, in this case to “the heart and Spirit.” But What higher end might such pleasure serve within the scheme of divine creation, within the framework of God’s purpose for humanity? If it were to serve no such higher end, then the enjoyment of beauty in the arts would be little more than a frivolous pastime, hardly worthy of the noble distinction accorded to all arts and sciences in the Writings.

In a religious worldview, all things are found to have a reason for being. The fundamental purpose all created things have in common is to enable humankind to know and to love God:

Having created the world and all that liveth ana’ moveth therein, [God] chose to confer upon man the unique distinction and capacity to know Him and to love Him—a capacity that must needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying the whole Ofcreation....3

Within the framework of this broad purpose, every created thing, from the humblest atom to the greatest spiritual law, has a specific role to play and an assigned purpose to fulfil. Baha’u’llah affirmed this ancient teaching in the following way:

Bahá’í World Faith, p. 384. 3 Gleanings, p. 65. 2 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’í Writings, pp. 8—9.

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...when the light of My Name, the All—Pervading, hath shed its radiance upon the universe, each and every created thing hath, according to a fixed decree, been endowed with the capacity to exercise a particular influence, and been made to possess a distinct virtue.1

And addressing the world of humankind, Baha’u’llah wrote:

Out of the wastes ofnothingness, with the clay of My command I made thee to appear, and have ordained for thy training every atom in existence and the essence of all created things.... And My purpose in all this was that thou mightest attain My everlasting dominion and become worthy of My invisible bestowals.2

Even the towering principle ofjustice—which Bah' ’ u’lláh called the best beloved of all things in My sight3, which he made to be the axis of the Baha’ a1 World Order, and whose name He gave to the supreme governing body of the Bahá’í world community—is but a means to a higher end. The purpose ofjustz'ce, Bahá’u’lláh disclosed, is the appearance ofunity among men.4 And unity itse1f, the central theme of the Bahá’í Revelation, stands revealed in another passage as a means to a still further end: ...unity and concord in turn are conducive to the maintenance oforder in the world and t0 the regeneration ofnations.5 In View of this consistent pattern, can we doubt that beauty, too, must have some role to play?

The Bahá’í Writings makem many references to beauty, but space permits us here to consider briefly only a few passages from the Divine Pen of Bah' ’ u’lláh. In the first, there seems to be a distinction between the Beauty that IS of God and the beauty found 1n the creation. The Beauty of God is inherently glorious, primary, original; whereas that of creation is subordinate, secondary, reflected:

I beseech T hee, O my God, by T hy Beauty that shinethforth above the horizon ofeternity, a Beauty before which as soon as it revealeth itself the kingdom ofbeauty boweth down in worship, magnzfizing it in ringing tones, to grant that I may die to all that I possess and live to whatsoever belongeth unto T hee.6

But since the Creator is sanctified above all attributes and holy above all names,7 it is utterly impossible for humanity to perceive the beauty of God’s essence:

T 00 high art T hou exalted for the eye of any creature to behold T hy beauty, or for the understanding of any heart to scale the heights of T hine immeasurable knowledge8

The most humanity can hope to perceive of a beauty that pertains to God is the beauty revealed in the attributes and perfections of God’s divine Messengers, the founders of the

or Bahá’u’lláh. For the purposes of our discussion, though, it is the same whether the passage refers to

Gleanings, p. 189. 2 Baha’u ’lláh The Hidden Words of Baha”lláh

ONLAJsbJ

(Wilmette: Baha“ 1 Publishing Trust, 1939),

Persian #29, p 32.

Hidden Words, Arabic #2, p. 3.

Tablets, p. 67.

Tablets, p. 36.

Bahá’í' Prayers (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1985), p. 241. (It is possible that the word beauty, when capitalized in Shoghi Effendi’s translations of the Bahá’í Writings, refers in some cases to a Manifestation of God, such as Jesus, Muhammad,

divine beauty in the abstract or as personified in a Manifestation of God, just as it is the same whether we speak of the sun’s rays in general or as reflected in a flawless mirror. For what concerns us here is not the individuality of the mirror, but the light.) Bahá’í' Prayers, p. 12.

Bahá’u’lláh, Prayers and Meditations by

Baha 'u 'Ilah (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1969), p. 88.

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Detail of a tapestry made by Vickie Hu Poirier called "Holding Up Halfthe S ." It was made as a gift for the first SinoAmerican Women ’s Conference, held in Beijing in 1990.

world’s great religions. Regarding the relation between such Messengers and the Supreme Creator, Bahá’u’lláh wrote:

Every one of them is a mirror of God, reflecting naught else but His Self His Beauty, His Might and Glory, if ye will understand. All else besides them are to be regarded as mirrors capable of reflecting the glory of these Manifestations Who are themselves the Primary Mirrors of the Divine Being, ...l

T hese sanctified Mirrors, these Day Springs ofancient glory, are, one and all, the Exponents on earth of Him Who is the central Orb Of the universe... The beauty of their countenance is but a reflection oins image, and their revelation a sign oinS deathless glory... By the revelation Ofthese Gems ofDivine virtue all the names and attributes of God, are made manifest.2

In this connection we note that Bahá’u’lláh is often referred to in the Bahá’í Sacred Writings by the titles “the Blessed Beauty” and “the Ancient Beauty.”

Divine beauty stands revealed, perfect and consummate, in the Manifestations of God; but, on the level of the creation, it is reflected by each created thing in a limited way, “each according to its capacity and rank.”

...the revelations of T hy matchless Beauty have at all times been imprinted upon the realities of all beings, visible and invisible.3

Gleanings, p. 74. 3 ibid., p. 63. 2 ibid., pp. 47—48.

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From the exalted source, and out of the essence of His favor and bounty He hath entrusted every created thing with a sign oins knowledge, so that none oins creatures may be deprived of its share in expressing, each according to its capacity and rank, this knowledge. This sign is the mirror oins beauty in the world ofcreation. The greater the effort exerted for the refinement of this sublime and noble mirror, the more faithfully will it be made to reflect the glory of the names and attributes ofGoa’, and reveal the wonders oins signs and knowledge.1

Upon the inmost reality ofeach and every created thing He hath shed the light of one of His names, and made it a recipient of the glory of one oins attributes. Upon the reality of man, however, He hath focused the radiance of all oins names and attributes, and made it a mirror oins own Self. Alone of all created things man hath been singled out for so great a favor, s0 enduring a bounty.2

It is important to observe that in the above passages Bahá’u’lláh equates beauty with the glory of the names and attributes of God.

Though one can know absolutely nothing of God’s essence, one can, however, appreciate God’s Beauty as revealed in the Messengers or Manifestations. This capacity is mentioned in the following passage, whose context is a warning that those who turn away from Bahá’u’lláh and His Revelation Will be held responsible before God:

...every man hath been, and will continue to be, able ofhimselfto appreciate the Beauty of God, the Glorified. Had he not been endowed with such a capacity, how could he be called to account for his failure?3

By the same token, when one contemplates the beauty reflected in the creation, and in the human heart itself, one finds that it leads to the same divine Source:

Every created thing in the whole universe is but a door leading into His knowledge, a sign oins sovereignty, a revelation oins names, a symbol of His majesty, a token oins power, a means ofadmittance into His straight Path... .4

The Creator’s purpose in endowing humanity with the capacity to appreciate beauty is to enable the human soul to recognize and feel attracted to God and to the Manifestation. This capacity is alluded to in a passage from a prayer revealed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:

0 Lord, make me hear T hy call, and open before my face the doors of T hy heaven, so that I may see the light of T hy glow and become attracted to T hy beauty.5

Deprived of such a capacity, humanity, though surrounded by the evidences of God’s presence, the signs of God’s dominion, and the revelation of God’s attributes, would be unable to respond to them, would remain insensible to their drawing power, and would feel no attraction to them. In such a condition, we would have no desire to make divine attributes our own and to reflect them in our way of life: no desire either to know God or to grow spiritually. We would lie wrapped in a paralyzing ignorance, and all our distinctive powers

1 Gleanings, p. 262. 4 ibid., p. 160. 2 ibid, p. 65. 5 Bahá’í Prayers, pl 62 3 ibid., p. 143.

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would remain dormant and undeveloped. How much difference would there be, in such a case, between human and animal?1

Beauty may be regarded as an attracting quality that radiates from the Manifestation of God, is reflected in all of God’s handiwork and is felt in the human heart as a stirring and awakening of love. Beauty, then, plays an essential role in aiding humanity to fulfil the very purpose of its existence: to know and to love God. In the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Real love is impossible unless one turn his face towards God and be attracted to His Beauty.2

Humanity’s love of God, in turn, generates a powerful desire to obey the Creator’s will. What would a person not do for someone he or she loves? To obey God for the love of His beauty requires greater spiritual maturity than does an obedience motivated solely by fear of God or by hope for divine reward.3 Yet Baha’u’llah, in the Kitab-i—Aqdas, calls for humankind to aspire to such maturity:

The T ongue of My power hath, from the heaven of My omnipotent glory, addressed to My creation these words: "Observe My commandments, for the love of My beauty. ”4

To be sure, the Long Obligatory Prayer itself (one of the three prayers destined by Baha’u’llah to be regularly recited throughout the Bahá’í world for at least a thousand years) opens by supplicating God to enable the believer to perceive the Creator’s beauty:

I beseech T hee by them Who are the Day Springs of T hine invisible Essence, the Most Exalted, the All-Glorious, to make of my prayer a fire that will burn away the veils which have Shut me out from T hy beauty, and a light that will lead me unto the ocean of T hy Presence.5

Towards the end of the prayer, we find that the perception of divine beauty is linked with obedience to God’s will:

I entreat T hee t0 ordain that I may gaze on T hy beauty and observe whatsoever is in T hy Book.6

The result is an ascending spiral of cause and effect: beauty calls forth love; love motivates observance of the divine teachings; observance leads to greater knowledge and understanding, and stimulates spiritual growth; while growth, in turn, increases the capacity to respond to beauty and to love God. The final obj ective of this ascending spiral is to enable the human soul so to attune itself to the will of God that it may, in the words of Baha’u’llah, be to all eternity the revelation of My everlasting being.7

1

1n mystic theory, one finds an approach to art and of art philosophy in the Orient, see Thomas Munro, beauty resembling that taken in this article. The Oriental Aesthetics.

mystic approach predominates in a large part of 2 Bahá’í World Faith, p. 364.

traditional Oriental theory and practice, notably in 3 The Báb’ Selection 5 from the Writings offhe Bab. India and China. But even here it should be noted Comp. Research Department (Haifa; Bahá’í World that some mystic theory regards beauty primarily as Centre, 1976), pp. 77—78.

a stimulus conducive to a state or ecstatic union 4 Synopsis and Codification offhe Laws and Ordiwith God or with the universe, whereas the accent nances offhe Kitab~i-Aqdas (Haifa; Bahá’í World in this essay is on beauty as a means to the knowl— Centre, 1973), p. 12.

edge of divine attributes and as a stimulus in the 5

Bahá’í' Prayers, pp. 7—8. ibid., pp. 13-14. 7 The Hidden Words, Arabic #64, p. 19.

daily process of spiritual growth. For an overview 6

[Page 1154]1 154 THE Bahá’í WORLD

In Vanuatu, Baha ’z's are performing a custom dance during a Spiritualization institute organized by Auxiliary Board members and held in Lawital, on T anna. January 1992.

One common and current notion of beauty is to regard it as a kind of exalted prettiness. Beauty as we have conceived of it here is not incompatible with loveliness, but it is, however, of a different order. In the Bahá’í Writings, beauty is associated not merely with sensual and intellectual pleasure but with divinely revealed truth, with the spiritual principles and teachings that constitute truth insofar as we can know it, and ultimately with the attributes of God. ...the pure heart, wrote ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, becometh the mirror of the beauty Oftruth.1 Thus Viewed, beauty is not an end in itself but a means to an end. Its purpose in the world of creation is to draw the human soul into a spiral of spiritual growth, carried upward on the Wings of love toward the kingdom of the most great Beauty. Its purpose in the realm of human creativity is the same. Art attracts the soul, through beauty, to a work in which the knowledge of things divine is imparted, by which attitudes to life are spiritualized, morality is strengthened, and service is rendered to the cause of spiritual growth. Acting as an agent of spiritual attraction, beauty thus plays an essential role in the process whereby art seeks to help ennoble the human soul.

This is not to suggest, however, that the subject matter of Bahá’í—engendered art need always be serene, harmonious, delicate, 0r blissful. It is also legitimate for art to portray the workings of the lower side of human nature, provided the latter is viewed in proper relation to the higher, spiritual side. On the subject of human nature, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá taught:

In man there are two natures; his spiritual or higher nature and his material lower nature. In one he approaches God, in the other he lives for the world alone. Signs of both these natures are to befound in men. In his material aspect he expresses untrath, cruelty and injustice; all these are the outcome of his lower nature. The attributes of his Divine nature are shown forth in love, mercy, kindness, truth and justice, one and all being expressions of his higher nature. Every good habit, every noble quality belongs to man ’s spiritual nature, whereas all his imperfect and Sinful actions are born of his material nature. If a man ’s Divine nature dominates his human nature, we have a saint.2

1 Bahá’í WorldFaith, p. 333. 2 ParisTalks,p.60.

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Man has two aspects: the physical, which is subject to nature, and the merciful or divine, which is connected with God. If the physical or natural disposition in him should overcome the heavenly and merciful, he is, then, the most degraded of an animal beings; and if the divine and spiritual should triumph over the human and natural, he is, verily, an angel. The Prophets come into the world to guide and educate humanity so that the animal nature of man may disappear and the divinity of his powers become awakened.1

If an artist portrays aspects of humankind’s lower nature-~such as greed, antagonism, hatred, and selfish strugglewin such a way as to demonstrate the truth of what Baha’u’llah taught on such subjects, is this not a service as valuable as that rendered by an artist whose works are permeated with undisturbed peace? What is important is not only the subject matter but also the way the artist treats it; not only the cognitive and emotional content manifest in a work of art but also, and especially, the effect such content is intended to have on the knowledge and the feelings of the participant.

In another passage from the pen of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, we find reason to feel that art“ especially the narrative arts such as literature, theater, and dance—in fulfilling an edifying role, can legitimately treat aspects of humanity’s lower animal nature:

...things are often known by their opposites. Were it not for darkness, light could not be sensed. Were it not for death, life could not be known. If ignorance did not exist, knowledge would not be a reality. It is necessary that each should exist in order that the other should have reality. Night and day must be in order that each may be distinguished.2

However, for art merely to display the workings of humanity’s lower nature is not enough: if art is to be edifying, the portrayal needs to be placed within a spiritual context, within the framework of God’s purpose in creating humankind. For it is only against such a framework that darkness can be perceived as the lack of light, evil as the absence of good. Only against such framework can Viewers, listeners, or readers of a work of art measure their own potential and be stimulated to grow spiritually. In other words, if artists refer in their work to the darker as well as the brighter side of human nature, they should try to do so in such a way as to engender within the participants’ souls an experience that will aid them to journey on “the road which leads to divine knowledge and attainment.” In the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:

Man must walk in many paths and be subjected to various processes in his evolution upward. Physically he is not born in full stature but passes through consecutive stages of fetus, infant, childhood, youth, maturity and old age... Unless you have passed through the state ofinfancy, how would you know this was an infant beside you? If there were no wrong, how would you recognize the right? If it were not for sin, how would you appreciate virtue? If evil deeds were unknown, how could you commend good actions? If sickness did not exist, how would you understand health? Evil is nonexistent; it is the absence of good. Sickness is the loss of health; poverty, the lack of riches.... Without knowledge there is ignorance; therefore, ignorance is simply the lack of knowledge. Death is the absence of life. T herefore, on the one hand, we have existence; on the other, nonexistence, negation or absence of existence.

‘Abdu’l-Bahá, ThePromulgationofUniversalPeace 2 ibid., p. 82. (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1982), p. 41.

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1156 THE BAHA’t WORLD

The Bahd ’z'puppet theatre group known as El Retablo del Mosquito, from the May Maxwell Cultural Centre in Buenos Aires, Argentina, presenting a play in

a park in 1988.

Briefly, the journey of the soul is necessary. The pathway of life is the road which leads to divine knowledge and attainment. Without training and guidance the soul could never progress beyond the conditions of its lower nature, which is ignorant and defective.1

The principle of making things known by their opposites has been applied in Western theater from ancient times, notably in the Greek concept of tragic drama. Consider, for example, a story about a person who was given a unique opportunity to establish justice but who exploited the chance instead for personal gain and in the end lost everything. In this story, injustice, worldly desire, and selfishness may figure prominently. If such negative qualities are presented in the light of Bahá’í teachings, however, they will be recognized as but the shadows cast by the positive qualities of justice, spiritual enkindlement, and altruism, and, if well conceived, the work may inspire in the reader or spectator a desire to attain these qualities and to shun their opposites. It is thus possible for art to be edifying even when its subject matter is apparently base, to be beautiful even when its subject matter is superficially unappealing; for beauty, as we have seen, is associated with divine truth and spiritual attributes.2

An important conclusion can be“ drawn from the foregoing discussion: One of the primary responsibilities of Bahá’í artists is to take care that the beliefs, values, attitudes, and emotions manifested in their art, on the one hand, and those that are intended to be stimulated

1 Promulgation, pp. 295-296. between beauty and truth. See Coomaraswamy, 2 Note the parallels here with Keats, and with Orien- Christian and. OrientaI'Phrlosophy, PP- 107409. tal and medieval Christian thinking on the relation [Page 1157]

LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS 1157

and reinforced in the participant, on the other, Vibrate in harmony with the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith. This is the best artists can do to make it likely that the experience their art engenders in the participant will have an ennobling effect.

EMOTION IN ART

Our consideration of the subject of beauty enables us now to turn to the closely related theme of emotion in art. One of the most popular and widespread Views on this subject is that the purpose of art is to express the emotions of the artist or to stimulate those of the public. There is no doubt that certain feelings of artists may in fact become manifest in their work and that the emotions of the public are affected. Emotion, like beauty, is surely an important element in the experience of art. All the principal theories of art take emotion into account. But if we were to View art mainly as an opportunity to give expression to the artist’s feelings, or if we were to value it primarily for the emotional stimulus it provides the public, would we not be giving disproportionate prominence to one element in the experience of art to the detriment of the others? Would we not, moreover, be losing sight of the highest aim of art, which is spiritual ennoblement?

To hold that the ultimate purpose of art is to provide emotional expression or stimulation is similar to holding that the value of beauty lies only in the pleasure it gives: in both cases means are mistaken for ends. We have seen that, according to the Bahá’í teachings, all created things serve some purpose and are a means to some further end, that of beauty being to attract the human soul toward its Creator and thereby to facilitate spiritual growth. We have seen, too, that beauty can accomplish such ends not only in the creation as a whole but in art as well. Might we not conclude that emotion, likewise, should be Viewed from the perspective of its role in human life, and within the framework of the highest obj ectives of art?

In daily living, emotion serves to energize the mind and to activate the will.1 Similarly, the emotions that art seeks to elicit, if appropriately managed and channeled by the artist, can aid the artist to fulfil art’s mystical aspect by stirring up a joyous attraction toward the kingdom of God. Such emotions can assist the artist to realize the moral aspect of the role of art by arousing in the public, hope for God’s bounty and fear of disobedience to divine law, and by imparting feelings of comfort and tranquillity to troubled souls. They can, furthermore, help the artist to render a social service by stimulating love toward humanity and sentiments of brotherhood and world unity.2

Emotion plays a key role in the realization of all the spiritual obj eetives of art, whether of a mystical, moral, or social nature. An example of its importance in the first case is found in the following passage from the writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:

1 See Emotion: A Comprehensive Phenomenology of

Theories and T heir Meanings for T herapy. Ed,

They are often not the same. Grief expressed by actors on a stage may inspire in the spectator not

James Hillman (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960). See also Tuman, “Toward Critical

F oundations”, pp. 30—33 for parallels between the role of emotion. in cognition generally and in the cognition of art specifically.

We must distinguishbetweenthe emotions manifested by the work of art-itself and those stirred within the person who experiences the work of art.

grief but pity. In a novel, the fright expressed by a plotter whose scheming backfired may inspire in the reader not fear but satisfaction. (See Nelsons Goodman, Languages ofArt: An Approach to a

T heory ofSymbOIs [Indianapolis Hackett Publishing Co., 1976], pp. 249—250.) Our focus here is on the emotions stirred by an within the participant.

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T herefore...set to music the verses and the divine words so that they may be sung with soulstirring melody in the Assemblies and gatherings, and that the hearts of the listeners may become tumultuous and rise towards the Kingdom of 'Abhá in szmplication and prayer.1

A further example of the effect of emotion, this time on a moral plane, is afforded by Shakespeare’s tragedies, Whose underlying spiritual laws concerning human motivation and conduct could never be so effectively highlighted and driven home Without that eloquent terror and consternation to Which the Violation of such truths inevitably leads. And for an illustration of effectiveness of emotion on the social plane, we have only to observe that the linking of appropriate verse With music can inspire such sentiments of national identity and cohesion that one of the earliest acts of a newly formed State is to commission the writing of a national anthem.

In brief, emotion in art is not an end but a means. By carefully designing works of art with the intention of inducing an experience in Which the participant’s emotions are selectively aroused and oriented, the artist can help ensure that the spiritual content of his or her work is effectively communicated, vividly felt, long remembered, and therefore the more likely to help broaden the Vision, deepen the understanding, spiritualize the sentiments, and affect the thought and even the conduct of those Who Wish to receive it. Art can thereby assist the fundamentally j oyous Bahá’í attitude to life, and With it the whole range of human emotions, to sail and find safe anchor in the harbor of God’s remembrance.

1 Baha 7 World Faith, p. 378.

A painting by a prisoner in Y azd, fran, showing ninefelled trees representing the seven martyrs onazd in 1980, and two in 1984. The artist explained: “T he earth is covered with snow. In some areas the snow is melting and thousands Oftiny trees are growing out of the large roots.

'Verily God hath made adversity as a morning dew upon His green pasture. ”’

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7. ALTRUISM AND EXTENSIVITY IN THE BAHA’t RELIGION

WENDY M. HELLER AND HODA MAHMOUDI

HUMAN history abounds with examples of oppression and injustice inflicted by one group on another. Over the centuries, ideologically sanctioned patterns of prejudice, distrust, and suspicion have given rise to norms of exclusiveness, aggression, and Violence toward those outside one’s own social group. Ironically, religion, which has the potential to transcend other group affiliations in uniting people into a community, has itself been the cause of some of the most bitter, Violent, and seemingly unsolvable conflicts between peoples. Yet, even while religion has often been used to justify prejudice and hostility against other groups, religious scriptures have fumished inspiring appeals to altruism and enduring exhortations to embrace the “other”.

Despite the pattern of group divisiveness, human history also contains examples of acts that defy this pattern: individuals who risk their lives to save others, who refuse to collaborate in acts of oppression even though in doing so they set themselves apart and risk ostracism or even death. Yet, in spite of the high cultural regard for valiant individual examples of moral heroism, societies have generally been slow to promote altruistic behavior as a model to be emulated; they have not deliberately encouraged the development of “altruistic personalities” able to transcend self—interest and group affiliation. However, it is precisely in those examples of altruistic acts that a glimmer of hope can be discerned for a solution to the monumental dysfunction that plagues human societies today, as well as solid evidence

that human nature is not innately and incorrigibly aggressive and egocentric—that human beings are genuinely capable of selflessness and extensive behavior toward all people, regardless of the group to which they belong. This article will examine some of the ways in which the Bahá’í Faith combines the unifying fimction of religion with altruism in its aspiration to develop an altruistically oriented global society.

Located in over two hundred countries, the Bahá’í Faith has recently been identified as the second most widely distributed religion (geographically) after Christianity} Although the Bahá’í Faith originated in nineteentheentury Train, the vast majority of its multiracial and multicultural membership is now located in other countries, especially in the Third World, with the largest national community being in India. The Bahá’í religion has no clergy; its community administration is conducted by elected councils of nine members at the local, national, and international levels. The Bahá’í teachings are contained in the writings of Baha’u’llah, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi. Bahá’ís accept these works as authoritative texts and the definitive model for belief and behavior, as well as the blueprint for social transformation and for the global social order that is the religion’s ultimate goal.2

1 Barrett, D.B., “World Religious Statistics.” Ency clopedia Britannica Book of the Year (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1988), p. 303. Universal House of J ustice, The Promise of World Peace (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1985).

This paper was originally presented at an intemational conference, “Theoretical and Social Implications of Rescuing People in Extreme Situations: Another Look at Altruism,” held in Radziejowice, Poland, June 12—15, 1989. A version of the paper has been published in Embracing the Other: Philosophical, Psychological, and Historical Perspectives 011Altruism, (New York University Press, 1992).

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Bahá’ís aim to transform civilization by transforming themselves and their own social institutions on the basis of principles contained in the Bahá’í scriptures. Both altruism and extensivitywa pattern of personal commitment and responsibility that embraces diverse groups of peoplel—are fundamental components of Bahá’í belief and practice, a factor that has important implications for the global society Bahá’ís are attempting to construct.

The social change envisioned by Bahá’ís involves interrelated and interactive processes of individual and structural transformation. Individual transformation embodies more than a profession of belief; it is viewed as a process of acquiring distinctive personal characteristics and demonstrating them in social interactions as well as in working, together With other Bahá’ís, to develop the emerging Bahá’í social institutions.

In the Bahá’í view, spiritual life is not separated from the realm of social relations but integrated With it. The Bahá’í teachings shift the primary focus of religious practice from individual salvation or enlightenment to the collective progress of humanity as a whole.2 Those teachings address social conditions and global problems as directly related to the individual’s spiritual life: issues of world peace, the equality of men and women, harmony between science and religion, the equitab1e distribution of wealth and resources, and the elimination of prejudice are, for Bahá’ís, inseparable from religious belief and practice.

1 Oliner, Samuel P., and Pearl M. Oliner, “Promoting

Extensive Altruistic Bonds: A Conceptual Elaboration and Some Pragmatic Implications.” In Embracing the Other: Philosophical, Psychological, and Historial Perspective on Altruism. ed. Pearl M. Oliner, et al (New York: New York University Press, 1992).

Arbab, Farzam, “The Process of Social Transformation.” In The Bahá’í Faith and Marxism: Proceedings ofa Conference Held January 1986 (Ottawa: Association for Bahá’í Studies, 1987),

p. 10.

THE BAHA’t WORLD

Such an emphasis on collective progress has important implications for the relationship of individual entitieswwhether individual persons, nations, or other groups———to the larger society of which they form a part. As Shoghi Effendi wrote in 1936, that relationship is essentially based on the pfinciple of the subordination of “every particularistic interest, be it personal, regional, or national, to the paramount interests of humanity. . ..”3 This principle, in turn, is based on the idea that, in a world of inter-dependent peoples and nations the advantage of the part is best to be reached by the advantage of the Whole, and that no abiding benefit can be conferred upon the component parts if the general interests of the entity itself are ignored or neglected.

Yet, the interests of humanity as a Whole are not conceptualized in terms of a vague abstraction that could be appropriated by a particular dominant group and interpreted as identical With its own interests, but rather as a complex dynamic relationship between the parts and the whole, in Which the Viability of the Whole is served by ensuring the wellbeing of all its individual parts, an enterprise for which all share responsibility.

This conception is demonstrated at its most basic in the relationship of the individual person and society. Although that relationship is, as Shoghi Effendi has stated, “essentially based on the principle of the subordination of the individual Will to that of society,” a complex balance is sought between individual freedom and responsibility, in Which the individual is neither suppressed nor excessively exalted. Cooperation between society and the individual is stressed, as is the fostering of “a climate in Which the untold potentialities of the individual members of society can develop. . ..”4

3 Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh: Selected Letters (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974), p. 198.

Universa1House of Justice, Individual Rights and F reedoms in» the World Order ofBah/t’u‘llrih:

A Statement by the Universal House of Justice (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1989), p. 20.

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LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS 1 161

In Malawi, friends help to get the car ofa visitor up the road. August 1990.

The Huxtables—a Bahá’í' family on St. Helena Island, in the South Atlantic.

From left to right: Delia, Robert, Clifi’ord, and Jane. 1 98 6.

Members of the Spirit ofBadl' ‘ teachingproject in New Zealand enjoying a moment of relaxation.

1988.

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Such a relationship, as it is envisioned, “must allow ‘free scope’ for ‘individuality to assert itself through modes of spontaneity, initiative and diversity that ensure the Viability of society.” Thus, even while the Will of the individual is subordinated to that of society, “the individual is not lost in the mass but becomes the focus of primary development...”1 The fulfillment of individual potential is to be sought not in pursuing self—oentered desires but in contributing to the well-being of others, and the honor and distinction of the individual consist in this, that he among all the world ’5 multitudes Should become a source of social good.2

As Farzam Arbab has noted, this shift of emphasis to the progress of humanity is also reflected in the importance given to specific qualities that Bahá’ís are enj oined to acquire, qualities that promote prosocial behavior and lead to unity: for example, justice is stressed more than charity, and the acquisition of attitudes conducive to human solidarity is valued over simple tolerance. Even the qualities of love and of detachment from the material world are conceived of as active and social rather than passive and inwardly directed:

...the social dimension is also enhanced through the expansion of the meaning of most qualities to include a social Vision. Love includes the abolition of social prejudices and the realization of the beauty of diversity in the human race. Detachment from the world is not taught in a way that leads to idleness and to the acceptance of oppression: it is acquired to free us from our own material interests in order to dedicate ourselves to the well—being of others. To this expansion of the meaning of almost all qualities is also added a constant endeavor to acquire social skills, to participate in meetings of consultation, to work in groups to reach and carry out collective decisions.3

1 ibid., pp. 20—21.

2 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, The Secret of Divine Civilization (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1975), p. 2.

3 Arbab, “Process”, p. 11.

THE Bahá’í WORLD

Thus, he concludes, the Bahá’í path of spiritualization “should not be confused With one that defines goodness passively and produces a human being Whose greatest Virtue is not to harm anyone; it is a path to create social activists and agents of change.”4

Altruism is a major component of that desired social change and figures prominently in the Bahá’í texts. Many scriptural exhortations delineate altruistic norms explicitly, holding in high regard those Who nurture altruistic aims and plans for the well-being of their fellow men....5 and urging individuals to be ready to lay down your lives one for the other, and not only for those who are dear to you, but for all humanity.6

Other teachings reflect values and attitudes that, as Oliner and Oliner report in The Altruistic Personality, are conducive to an altruistic orientation. These include a sense of unity With and responsibility toward others beyond one’s own social group, a strong family orientation, emphasis on relationship rather than on status, generosity, trustworthiness, appreciation of diversity, as well as ethical values of justice and caring.

Unity and interdependence, and their link to helping behavior, are prominent themes in the Bahá’í texts, often expressed through organic metaphors, as in this passage from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh:

The utterance of God iS a lamp, whose

light is these words: Ye are the fruits of

one tree, and the leaves of one branch.

Deal ye one with another with the utmost

love and harmony.... So powerful is the

light of unity that it can illuminate the

whole earth. 7

4 ibid.

5 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu’l—Bahd (Haifa: Bahá’íWorld Centre, 1978), p. 72.

6 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris T alks: Addresses given by 'Abdu 'l-Bahá in Paris in 191 I (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1969), p. 170.

7 Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahd ’u 'lláh (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 288.

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Explaining this metaphorical reference, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes that because all humans are interconnected and mutually dependent, they must “powerfully sustain one another” by caring for each other:

Let them at all times concern themselves

with doing a kindly thing for one of their

fellows, offering to someone love, consideration, thoughtful help. Let them see no

one as their enemy, or as wishing them ill,

but think of all humankind as their friends;

regarding the alien as an intimate, the stranger as a companion, stayingfree of prejudice, drawing 710 lines.

The theme of inclusiveness is emphasized in every aspect of Bahá’í individual and community life, beginning with the fundamental teachings of the oneness of humanity and the unity of religion. The Bahá’í teachings View divine revelation not as a static, unique event, but as a continuing process that is the central feature of human history. The spirit that inspired all the founders of the great religions of the past, the Manifestations of God, is recognized as one and the same. Their original teachings contain the same basic, unchanging spiritual and ethical precepts, prominent among which are the teachings that promote altruism. The tenets that change from one religious dispensation to another are the social laws and practices, which apply those precepts in specific forms. Thus, religious truth is understood to be relative, progressive, and developmental.

Such a perspective implies more than tolerance for the equality of individual religions as separate entities to be respected in a pluralistic society. It redefines the nature of their relationship to one another and thus sets new terms for a definition of identity based on connection rather than separation. Unlike religious groups who define themselves by their distinction from other groups based on the claim that their founder was the sole or the final source of truth or that their practices are the only correct form

Selections, pp. 1-2.

1163

of worship, the Bahá’í religious tradition accepts all the great Spiritual teachers as equals. Bahá’ís are expected to revere Buddha, Zoroaster, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, as well as Baha’u’llah, recognizing in them all the same spirit of the mediator between God and humanity. Thus, although the body of teachings composing the Bahá’í religion itself cannot accurately be called eclectic, the Bahá’í religious tradition includes all of the previous dispensations, which are Viewed as “different stages in the eternal history and constant evolution of one religion, Divine and indivisible, of which it [the Bahá’í Faith] itself forms but an integral part.”2

From the Bahá’í perspective, the principle of the unity of religion and progressive revelation restores the unific role of religion in society, providing a basis for resolving long—standing, apparently unbridgeable divisions among religious communities as well as a resolution of the dilemma posed by the existence of numerous religions, each claiming divine origin. For Bahá’ís, the principle removes any pretext for disunity deriving from religious affiliation; in fact, all religious conflict is forbidden. The Bahá’í writings direct Bahá’ís to love... all religions and all races with a love that is true and sincere and show that love through deea’s...;3 to exert their efforts so that the tumult of religious dissension and strife that agitateth the peoples of the earth may be stilled, that every trace of it may be completely obliteratea’.4 That the divers communions Of the earth, and the manifold systems ofreligious beliefi Baha’u’llah writes, should never be allowed to foster the feelings of animosity among men, is in this Day, of the essence of the Faith of God and His Religion.5 Affirming the preeminence of the principle of religious inclusiveness and unity, the Bahá’í writings go so far as to state that if religion

World Order, p. 114. Selections, p. 69. Gleanings, p. 288. ibid., p. 287.

LAAOJN

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Children in Bahd ’z' literacy classes in the Upper Corentyne District ofBerbice, Guyana, finding letters which spell out “I Love Guyana ”; 1990.

An American Bahá’í Youth Year ofService volunteer who lived in Botswana in 1987 used a globe to help convey concepts while deepening some of the friends.

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LITERARY AND MUSICAL WORKS

becomes the cause of division and disunity, it is better to have no religion at all.1 Closely linked to the principle of the unity of religion is the distinguishing feature of the Bahá’í dispensation: the principle of the oneness and wholeness of humanity. The full equality of all members of the human species and their close relationship to one another requires that Bahá’ís regard people from all racial, religious, ethnic, class, and national backgrounds as members of one global family. Rather than offering mere “symbols of intemationalism” in the hope that these might, as Allport suggested, “provide mental anchorage points around Which the idea of world-loyalty may develop,”2 the Bahá’í religion begins With the underlying principle of world loyalty and human unity, Which is itself the anchorage point, “the pivot,” according to Shoghi Effendi, “round Which all the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh revolve. . ..”3 The extension of the individual’s personal commitments and relationships to include the diverse groups composing humanity is repeatedly urged in Bahá’í texts in the strongest terms possiblew—that is, as no less than a divine commandment: In every dispensation, there hath been the commandment offellowship and love, but it was a commandment limited to the community Ofthose in mutual agreement, not to the dissidentfoe. In this wondrous age, however, praised be God, the commandments of God are not delimited, not restricted to any one group of people; rather have all the friends been commanded to show forth fellowship and love, consideration and generosity and loving-kindness to every community on earth.4

‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation ofUniversaI Peace:

Talks Delivered by 'Abdu 'l-Baha during His Visit to

the United States and Canada in 1912. (Wilmette:

Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1975) p. 117.

7‘ Allport, Gordon W., The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison—Wesley, 1954), p. 44.

3 World Order, p. 42.

4 Selections, pp. 20—21.

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Far from being an abstract principle removed from the real social conditions, the unity of humankind must be lived in practice, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá told a gathering in Europe in 1912:

Do not be content with showing friend ship in words alone...

When you meet a [stranger]... speak to

him as to a friend; if he seems to be lonely

fly to help him, give him of your willing service; if he be sad console him, if poor succour him, if oppressed rescue him...

What profit is there in agreeing that uni versal friendship is good, and talking of

the solidarity of the human race as a

grand ideal?) Unless these thoughts are

translated into the world of action, they are useless.5

Although the Bahá’í writings speak of the absolute equality of all, the intent is not sameness of conformity to a dominant culture, nation, race, class, or any other group. In theory and in practice, cultural and racial diversity is valued in the Bahá’í community. Along With the expression of the ideal, a conscious awareness exists that effort is necessary to break down age—old barriers of prejudice and separation. The cultivation of friendships With people of different backgrounds is repeatedly encouraged, but perhaps the most notable evidence of the Bahá’í commitment to interracial unity is the attitude toward interracial marriage, Which is actively welcomed and encouraged in the Bahá’í writings.

In consonance With the prosocial orientation of the Bahá’í teachings, the ideal Bahá’í personality, as implied in the Bahá’í scriptures, is other centered, extensive, and altruistic. In one passage, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá makes altmism itself the touchstone for a new definition of true human nature:

...man should be willing to accept hard ships for himself in order that others may

enjoy wealth; he should enjoy trouble for himself that others may enjoy happiness

5 Paris Talks, p. 16.

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and well—being. This is the attribute of

man....

He who is so hard—hearted as to think

only of his own comfort, such an one will

not be called man.

Man is he who forgets his own interests

for the sake of others. His own comfort

he forfeits for the well—being of all. Nay, rather, his own life must he be willing to forfeit for the life of mankind]

Although personal transformation is seen as a lifelong process, according to the Bahá’í texts, the foundations of altruistic behavior can be developed in childhood. Children are believed to be born With the capacity for good or bad behavior; during the course of their development they can be influenced by their social interactions, especially in the family. Thus, the development of the prosocial individual begins with the training and socialization of children. The Bahá’í writings urge parents to teach [children] to dedicate their lives to matters of great import, and inspire them to undertake studies that will benefit mankind.2 So crucial is the teaching of prosooial behavior that training in morals and good conduct is far more important than book learning.3

However, teaching children lofty ideas is not considered sufficient on its own. Emphasis is repeatedly placed upon behavior rather than professions of belief—on deeds, not words. Thus, the most powerful method by Which children can be taught a prosocial orientation is the model of parents whose actions reflect the ideal personality characteristics.

The impact of modeling on children has received significant support in the literature on altruism and prosocial behavior. Mussen and Eisenberg-Berg write, “A substantial proportion of the individual’s helping and sharing responses is acquired through observation and imitation of a model’s behavior

1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Foundations of World Unity (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1979), p. 42. Selections, p. 129.

3 ibid., p. 135.

THE Bahá’í WORLD

Without direct reinforcements.”4 Yarrow, Scott, and Waxler conclude that “generalized altruism would appear to be best learned from parents who do not only try to inculcate the principles of altruism, but who also manifest altruism in everyday interactions.”5 The role of parental influence in fostering the development of the altruistic personality has been fiarther underscored by Oliner and Oliner in The Altruistic Personality, their study of rescuers of Jews during World War 11.6 Another area of related emphasis is parental discipline. The Bahá’í writings state that, It is incumbent upon every father and mother to counsel their children over a long period, and guide them unto those things which lead to everlasting honour.7 The development of good character and behavior in children, however, is to be encouraged through the love, understanding, and Wise guidance of the parents, using reason rather than force. Bahá’í texts strongly discourage the use of physical punishment or verbal abuse of children, stating that, it is not... permissible to strike a child, or vilifi/ him for the child ’s character will be totallypervertea1 if he be subjected to blows or verbal abuse.8 The Bahá’í View on parental discipline is supported by contemporary social psychologists. Hoffman, as well as others, suggests that the use of physical power or material resources to control a child’s behavior (power assertion) is least effective in developing consideration for others. Power~assertion techniques of discipline promote in children aggressive behavior, self-centered values, and an unwillingness to share With other

4 Mussen, P., and N. Eisenberg—Berg, Roots of Caring, Sharing, and Helping: The Development of Prosocial Behavior in Children (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977), p. 31.

5 Yarrow, M.R., P. Scott, and CZ. Waxler, “Learning Concern for Others.” Developmental Psychology (1973), p. 256.

6 Oliner, Samuel P., and Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe (New York: Free Press, 1988).

Selections, p. 134.

8 ibid., p. 125.

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children.1 In contrast, the disciplinary technique of induction~reasoning and explanation based on the impact of the child’s behavior on othersfiencourages prosocial behavior.2

Bahá’í child socialization aims to develop a prosocial orientation in children, who are encouraged to recognize themselves as members of a community that begins with the family and extends to include all of humanity. They are encouraged to develop a sense of personal spiritual responsibility to act toward others With empathy and compassion as well as justice and equity, and to sacrifice their own material self—interests for others in need. As adults, Bahá’ís are expected to make a commitment to continue internalizing such patterns until they become the foundation of the personality itself. Spiritual development is seen as an infinite process of self—transformationwthat is, a continual, conscious refining of one’s be havior in the crucible of social interaction. The cultivation of spiritual, altruistic qualities remains the aim and central focus of life for the adult Bahá’í.

In light of recent research, it is noteworthy that both the ethical principles of justice and of caring, important motivators of altruistic behavior (see Oliner and Oliner, The Altruistic Personality), are emphasized in the Bahá’í writings, where they are not Viewed as contradictory 0r exclusive but as inseparably connected. Even when the ethic of justice is enjoined, it is usually as a practice to be performed out of concern for others. Justice is presented as the practice of equity, often linked with safeguardfing] the rights of the downtrodden....3 The Bahá’í conception of justice means that all have a right to receive care.

Well over half a century before Carol Gilligan called attention to the complementarity Of the “masculine” ethic of justice and

l Hoffman, Martin, “Moral Intemalization, Parental

Power, and the Nature of Parent—Child Interaction.” Developmental Psychology 11 (1975) pp. 228—239. Mussen and Eisenberg-Berg, Roots.

Gleanings, p. 247.

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the “feminine” ethic of caring,4 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá had written: ”T he Kingdom of God is founded upon equity and justice, and also upon mercy, compassion, and kindness to every living soul. Strive ye then with all your heart to treat compassionately all humankind...” He then qualified this statement, asserting that oppression must be opposed: “Kindness cannot be shown the tyrant, the deceiver, or the thief, because, far from awakening them to the error of their ways, it maketh them to continue in their perversity as before.”5

The Bahá’í teachings recognize that the transformation of individuals into altruistic persons cannot take place outside the social context, which must provide a matrix for that transformation. Recent research has drawn attention to the importance of group norms in motivating moral behavior, Whether directly, as a response to the social expectations as such, or indirectly, as internalized personal norms.6 The findings of Oliner and Oliner, outlined in The Altmistic Personality, further emphasize the importance of the “normocentric” orientation in motivating the altruism of rescuers of Jews during World War 11.

Such findings imply that, while altruistic qualities must be fostered in individuals, a social framework must also be provided within which extensivity and altruism are valued and represent the norms of the group itself. The creation of such a society is inseparable from the development of individual altruistic personalities, for, so long as groups value egocentrism, unfettered individualism, status seeking, dominance, and a materialistic orientation, altruism Will remain an exception to the rule, and the altruistic personality Will

Gilligan, Carol, In a Different Voice: Psychological T heory and Women ’s Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982).

Selections, p. 158.

Reykowski, Janusz, “Motivation of Prosocial Behavior.” In Cooperation and Helping Behavior: T heories and Research. ed. VJ. Derlaga and J . Grizelak (New York: Academic Press, 1982), p. 359.

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appear as deviant in comparison to the rest of the group. In Bahá’í society, this situation is reversed:

Altruism is not an aberrant behavior contrary to convention because the normative expectations (which individuals are ultimately expected to internalize) are altruistic. It is beyond the scope of this discussion to describe in its entirety the social order Bahá’ís envision and to which they are committed. However, they believe that much of it will be the fruit of the process of integration of now isolated or even hostile races, groups, and nations who, as they come together and unite in the same cause, become transformed and help transform each other, and bring to the rising institutions of a new World Order the richness of different cultures and of different social thought and experience.1

Thus, in the Bahá’í View, it is through the individual practice as well as the institutionalization of the principle of unity in diversity that human society can evolve to an unprecedented level of cohesion and cooperation, and transcend the limitations implicit in the current state of separation and competitiveness. While the Bahá’í conception of unity in diversity should not be construed as merely a version of liberal pluralism, the safeguarding and encouraging of diverse elements Within the Bahá’í community is a major institutional principle. It is embedded within Bahá’í institutions through practices that require the participation and suppoft of the entire Bahá’í community because they apply at all levels of administrative and community functioningwlocal, national, and international.

Most prominent of these practices is consultation, a group decision-making process whose goal is to reach solutions torproblems by consensus. Bahá’í consultation encourages the open and frank expression of diverse views on the topic under discussion in an atmosphere of love and respect that also

1 Arbab. “Process,” p. 11.

THE Bahá’í WORLD

allows the “clash of differing opinions” that can strike the “shining spark of truth”.2 Each member of the consultative group has an equal right of expression, and no blocs, factions, or any subdivisions of the group are permitted. Inseparable from the Bahá’í consultative process is the development of sensitivity and respect for the different voices whose expressions of opinion may not fit into conventional or dominant cultural modes of communication. Since the group attempts to work toward consensus on an issue, voting only as a last resmt, the process does not necessarily require reduction to duality: alternatives need not be narrowed down to the two poles “for” and “against”. Instead, the consultative process itself, drawing on the interactive contributions of all its diverse members, is looked to as the creative source of new solutions.

Consultation is regarded both as a method for generative decision making and conflict resolution as well as an instrument for reinforcing the unity of a diverse group. It is the method by which the Bahá’í administrative institutions conduct the affairs of the Bahá’í community, but Bahá’ís are also encouraged to use consultation in all aspects of their lives, whether in the family, neighborhood, or workplace.

Another way in which Bahá’í administrative institutions are structured to implement unity in diversity involves practices intended to ensure the participation of minority ethnic populations. (The definition of what constitutes a “minority” is left to the discretion of the national institution in each country.) “To discriminate against any race, on the ground of its being socially backward, politically immature, and numerically in a minority”, is considered to be “a flagrant Violation of the spirit” of the Bahá’í teachings.3 In principle, protecting the “just interests of any minority element within the Bahá’í

2 Bahá’í' Administration, p. 21. 3 Shoghi Effendi, T he Advent ofDivine Justice (Wilmette: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1984), p. 35.

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community” and ensuring that all have the opportunity to contribute their perspectives to collaborative efforts of the group, is considered so important that representatives of minority populations “are not only enabled to enj oy equal rights and privileges, but they are even favored and accorded priority.”1 Bahá’í communities are instructed that it is their duty to ensure that “Bahá’í representative institutions, be they Assemblies, conventions, conferences, or committees, may have represented on them as many of these divers elements, racial or otherwise, as possible.”2 One way in Which the principle is practiced is the minority tie rule of Bahá’í elections. In the course of elections for Bahá’í administrative institutional membership—elections conducted Without nominations or campaigning and decided by plurality vote—~if voting results in a tie between persons, one of Whom represents a minority, “priority should unhesitatingly be accorded the party representing the minority, and this for no other reason except to stimulate and encourage it, and afford it an opportunity to further the interests of the community.”3 In addition to its direct effect in increasing minority representation on Bahá’í administrative institutions, the practice of this rule heightens the sensitivity of the group to its minority membership and reaffirms the group commitment to valuing and encouraging minority participation. For the individual believer, conceding a tie vote to the minority representation becomes a concrete opportunity to practice sacrifice of self-interest for the other within a context of social approval. Whether applied in community administration, in the family, in education, or in the economy, the Bahá’í principles and practices are Viewed as catalysts Whose application Will ultimately bring about social transformation

Universal House of Justice, Messages from the Universal House of Justice 1968—1973 (Wilmette, Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 49.

2 Advent, p. 36.

3 ibid., p. 35.

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At the Bahá’í' Vocational Institute for Rural Women in Kalyanpura, Madhya Pradesh, India, women learn how to read and write. 1988.

leading to the development of an altruistic global society. Such a society, in the Bahá’í context, begins With the individual striving daily toward personal transformation—the deliberate internalization of spiritual teachings incorporating altruistic, extensive values as personal norms. The Bahá’í teachings strive to imbue individuals With an inclusive orientation transcending, though not suppressing, other group loyalties and valuing the well-being of the entire planet and all its inhabitants. Throughout the Bahá’í writings, the vision imparted to the individual is that of a peaceful, just, and caring civilization Whose foundation rests on the cornerstone of the unity of all human beings, a unity that is to be consolidated and protected by institutions Which reflect and promote the principles of unity, equity, and altruistic service as normative expectations.