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World Order, Series 2 Volume 25 - Issue 4

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Summer 1994

World Order

WORTHY CAUSES AND
SPIRITUAL PRINCIPLES
EDITORIAL

MEDICAL ASPECTS OF THE
SUFFERING OF BAHÁ’U’LLÁH
THOMAS A. BUCKINHAM, M.D.

TOWARD A NEW ENVIRONMENTAL
STEWARDSHIP
MICHAEL KARLBERG

THE APPLICATION OF BAHÁ’Í
TEACHINGS ON HEALTH
ALFRED K. NEUMANN, M.D., & LAURA ANN FERNEA

ANIMAL WELFARE AND THE STUDY
OF ANIMAL CONSCIOUSNESS
MARY CARMAN ROSE

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World Order

VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4

WORLD ORDER IS INTENDED TO STIMULATE, INSPIRE, AND SERVE THINKING PEOPLE IN
THEIR SEARCH TO FIND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CONTEMPORARY LIFE AND CONTEMPORARY
RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS AND PHILOSOPHY

Editorial Board:
FIRUZ KAZEMZADEH
BETTY J. FISHER
HOWARD GAREY
ROBERT H. STOCKMAN
JAMES D. STOKES

Consultant in Poetry:
HERBERT WOODWARD MARTIN

Subscriber Service:
RHONDA SPENNER

WORLD ORDER is published quarterly by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, 415 Linden Avenue, Wilmette, IL 60091. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to WORLD ORDER Subscriber Service, Bahá’í National Center, Wilmette, IL 60091. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the publisher, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, or of the Editorial Board. Manuscripts can be typewritten or computer generated. They should be double spaced throughout, with the footnotes at the end. The contributor should send four copies—an original and three legible copies—and should keep a copy. Return postage should be included. Send manuscripts and other editorial correspondence to WORLD ORDER, 415 Linden Avenue, Wilmette, IL 60091.

Subscription rates: U.S.A., 1 year, $10.00; 2 years, $18.00; single copies, $3.00. All other countries, 1 year, $15.00; 2 years, $28.00; single copies, $3.00. Airmail, 1 year, $20.00; 2 years, $38.00.

WORLD ORDER is protected through trademark registration in the U.S. Patent Office.

Copyright © 1994, National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the U.S.A.
ISSN 0043-8804

IN THIS ISSUE

2   Worthy Causes and Spiritual Principles

Editorial

4   Interchange: Letters from and to the Editor

7   Medical Aspects of the Suffering of Bahá’u’lláh

by Thomas A. Buckingham, M.D.

19   I Eat My Words

poem by Dale Fowler

21   Toward a New Environmental Stewardship

by Michael Karlberg

33   Landscape in Five Dimensions

poem by Don Child

41   The Application of Bahá’í Teachings on Health

by Alfred K. Neumann, M,D., and Laura Ann Fernea

51   The Exile Makes a Comeback

poem by Dale Fowler

53   Animal Welfare and the Study of Animal

Consciousness

by Mary Carman Rose

62   Lone Mountain Haiku

poem by Barbara Murray Turner

64   Authors & Artists in This Issue

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Worthy Causes and
Spiritual Principles

FOLLOWING swings of public interest, the United Nations dedicates a year or a decade to some worthy cause such as the protection of children, the advancement of women, the elimination of racial discrimination, or economic development. Conferences, seminars, learned monographs, and government pronouncements stress a particular theme and help mobilize public opinion in support of vital issues that would not otherwise receive the attention they deserve. When the year or the decade is over, interest subsides, and the issue gradually fades from sight. No doubt the momentary focusing of the public’s attention produces some positive results, but these are frequently small and insignificant. Moreover, emphasizing an issue and then dropping it creates a sense of disappointment and leads to cynicism about international undertakings.

After decades of talk about collective security, the world community has not yet found the will to stop bloody conflicts that take hundreds of thousands of lives on every continent but Antarctica. A Year of the Child does not seem to have improved the lot of tens of millions of hungry, homeless, abandoned children. Conventions outlawing torture have not prevented governments and terrorists alike from engaging in that abominable practice. Racial discrimination and ethnic hatred continue despite treaties and declarations outlawing them. One may be forgiven for doubting that the recent emphasis on the advancement of women would right the millennial wrongs they have suffered in virtually every society on earth. The pursuit of peace, the unity of races, and the equality of the sexes; the struggle for economic justice and the preservation of the environment are picked up, discussed, and left incomplete because none of these issues is elevated to the level of principle. There is no agreement as to each issue’s place among the ultimate values by which humanity must live.

[Page 3] Nine years ago in “The Promise of World Peace,” an address to the peoples of the world, the Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing and legislative body of the Bahá’í Faith, stated that

There are spiritual principles, or what some call human values, by which solutions can be found for every social problem. Any well-intentioned group can in a general sense devise practical solutions to its problems, but good intentions and practical knowledge are usually not enough. The essential merit of spiritual principle is that it not only presents a perspective which harmonizes with that which is immanent in human nature, it also induces an attitude, a dynamic, a will, an aspiration, which facilitate the discovery and implementation of practical measures. Leaders of governments and all in authority would be well served in their efforts to solve problems if they would first seek to identify the principles involved and then be guided by them.

Is it not time to heed this sage advice?

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Interchange LETTERS FROM AND TO THE EDITOR

THERE ARE some sciences that are directly applied to the betterment of the world, as contrasted with others that seem to seek knowledge for its own sake, in that their applications are envisaged as by-products rather than primary goals. Those more “humane” sciences, if we may use the term, are exemplified by the medical sciences, ecological studies, ethology, and other sciences devoted to the welfare of human beings and of those other inhabitants of the world, the animals.

In this issue of WORLD ORDER we may read a medical study by Dr. Thomas A. Buckingham of the sufferings of Bahá’u’lláh, in which we can glimpse some measure of the pain and sadness inflicted upon Him and marvel at the God-given endurance of hardships that would have felled a lesser person. Dr. Buckingham allows himself no conjecture as to how Bahá’u’lláh was able to withstand the torture and imprisonment He suffered for forty years, but we may infer from his account something about the nature of martyrdom and the power of the Divine mandate.

The article by Dr. Alfred K. Neumann and Laura Ann Fernea on “The Application of Bahá’í Teachings on Health” emphasizes the inseparability of physical and spiritual health, and that of individuals and the communities in which they live, and that of communities—local or national —and the health of the whole world. The reader will find Bahá’í teachings that relate specifically to the maintenance and recovery of health and discover that there can be no practical health plan without a spiritual underpinning.

In the same vein, the article by Michael Karlberg, “A New Spiritual and Ethical Basis for Environmental Stewardship,” makes it clear that the world in which we, humans and animals, live is in danger of permanent damage and destruction because of the disregard of ethical principles that have characterized the world since the introduction of science and technology in modern times, without the moderating influence of spiritual principles. We need not give up the technological gains of science in order to recover the physical and spiritual health of our planet.

In “Animal Welfare and the Study of Animal Consciousness,” Dr. Mary Carman Rose presents a compelling case for the serious study of the nature of things, in this case the subjective states of non-human beings, in which the facts are the primary goal (difficult though they may be to tease out, in view of the inability of the animals to speak to us intelligibly), but facts whose apprehension lead ineluctably to ethical conclusions. Dr. Rose draws attention to a number of quotations from the Bahá’í writings stressing the importance of kindness to animals and of manifesting human responsibility for creatures not endowed with the capacity to defend themselves against humankind’s power over them.

[Page 5] The inclusion of an article on our ethical obligation to animals represents another facet of the principle of unity in diversity, which is usually taken to refer to the diversity within the human race, as well as to the essential commonality that characterizes beings of every category. But in this instance, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has made clear, we are one with the Creation; we share the capacity for pain, thirst, and hunger with the beasts, whose animal nature we share, while having, in distinction to them, a unique intelligence. The interdependence of all the creatures is a model of that of all the peoples of the world.

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Medical Aspects of the
Suffering of Bahá’u’lláh

BY THOMAS A. BUCKINGHAM, M.D.

Copyright © by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States. Opposite: The Shrine of Bahá’u’lláh, Bahjí, Israel.

THE DRAMATIC historical events surrounding the persecution of Bahá’u’lláh, Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, are well known. Many accounts written in English and several works translated from Persian into English document His torture and imprisonments and the attempts made to poison Him. A consideration of all the sources currently available in the West on this subject reveals that no single source or reference gives the complete account of all the events surrounding His persecutions. Hence it is illuminating to summarize and correlate the events surrounding the persecution of Bahá’u’lláh during the early part of His ministry, to consider the medical consequences of this treatment, and to explore the reasons for His sufferings.

Historical Events

BAHÁ’U’LLÁH was born in Persia to a noble and wealthy family. During His youth, He enjoyed all the privileges and luxuries of the Persian upper class of the time. Despite these privileges, Bahá’u’lláh was known for His wisdom and His generosity, which earned Him the appellation “‘Father of the Poor.’”

In 1844 a young religious reformer called the Báb, meaning “the Gate,” proclaimed that He was the Manifestation of God sent to prepare humankind for another Prophet, “Him Whom God shall make manifest.” Bahá’u’lláh became a follower of the Báb and was gradually viewed by His fellow Bábís as one of the leaders of the Faith. As the Báb’s coming had fulfilled numerous prophecies of Shi‘ite Islam, the Báb rapidly gained many followers and attracted the jealous attention of the Islamic religious and political leaders. The religious leaders saw this new religion as a threat to their power and instituted persecutions that claimed the life of twenty thousand Bábís and culminated in 1850 with the martyrdom of the Báb in Tabríz by order of the government.

The persecution of the Báb’s followers continued after His death. After a failed assassination attempt was made on the Shah of Persia in mid-August 1852 by two dissident Bábís, Bahá’u’lláh, a leading member of the Bábí community, was arrested on orders of the government. He was in the village of Lavásán a number of miles from His home in the capital city of Tehran. Although He was known as a prominent follower of the Báb, Bahá’u’lláh had for the most part been spared persecution because of His wealth, family position, wisdom, and recognized moderation. He had been imprisoned briefly on two earlier occasions and had, during His second arrest, suffered the bastinado—a beating or flogging of the feet with a rod—in the mosque of Ámul in front of an angry mob of four thousand in December 1848. Bahá’u’lláh had been arrested with several other Bábís who were to receive the bastinado while [Page 8] He, because of the prominence of His family, was to be spared. However, He insisted on receiving the punishment in their place.

At the time of His third arrest in August 1852, Bahá’u’lláh was “in the full bloom of youth; immensely resourceful; matchless in His eloquence; endowed with inexhaustible energy and penetrating judgment; possessed of the riches, and enjoying, in full measure, the esteem, power and prestige associated with an enviably high and noble position.” When news reached Him of the order for His arrest, Bahá’u’lláh, ignoring advice from friends and supporters to the contrary, chose to ride to the headquarters of the Imperial army in Shimírán, near Tehran. Despite the protection of the Russian Minister, Prince Dolgorouki, and the secretary of the Russian Legation, Mírzá Majíd-i-Áhi, whose wife Nisá’ Khánum was Bahá’u’lláh’s younger sister, Bahá’u’lláh was arrested and His sufferings began in earnest.

‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh’s son and appointed successor, has written about Bahá’u’lláh’s arrest, saying that “Immediately on His arrival He was placed under arrest, and a whole regiment guarded Him closely. After several days of interrogation they sent Him in chains and fetters from Shimírán to the jail of Ṭihrán.” Nabíl-i-A‘ẓam wrote in The Dawn-Breakers, his history of the early days of the Bábí Faith, about Bahá’u’lláh’s march to the Síyáh-Chál (literally, “the Black Pit”), a notorious underground prison: “As He was approaching that dungeon, an old and decrepit woman was seen to emerge from the midst of the crowd, with a stone in her hand, eager to cast it at the face of Bahá’u’lláh.” She asked the guards to let her throw the stone. “‘Suffer not this woman to be disappointed,’ were Bahá’u’lláh’s words to His guards, as He saw her hastening behind Him. ‘Deny her not what she regards as a meritorious act in the sight of God.’” Historical accounts do not relate whether she cast her stone, or, if she did, whether it struck Bahá’u’lláh, but it is known that Bahá’u’lláh was forced to walk in front of the royal horsemen at their pace for approximately fifteen miles. In God Passes By, his masterful and authoritative history of the Bahá’í Faith, Shoghi Effendi writes,

Delivered into the hands of His enemies, this much-feared, bitterly arraigned and illustrious Exponent of a perpetually hounded Faith was now made to taste of the cup which He Who had been its recognized Leader [the Báb] had drained to the dregs. From Níyávarán He was conducted “on foot and in chains, with bared head and bare feet,” exposed to the fierce rays of the midsummer sun, to the Síyáh-Chál of Ṭihrán. On the way He several times was stripped of His outer garments, was overwhelmed with ridicule, and pelted with stones. As to the subterranean dungeon into which He was thrown, and which originally had served as a reservoir of water for one of the public baths of the capital, let His own words, recorded in His “Epistle to the Son of the Wolf,” bear testimony to the ordeal which He endured in that [Page 9] pestilential hole. “We were consigned for four months to a place foul beyond comparison. . . . Upon Our arrival We were first conducted along a pitch-black corridor, from whence We descended three steep flights of stairs to the place of confinement assigned to Us. The dungeon was wrapped in thick darkness, and Our fellow-prisoners numbered nearly one hundred and fifty souls: thieves, assassins and highwaymen. Though crowded, it had no other outlet than the passage by which We entered. No pen can depict that place, nor any tongue describe its loathsome smell. Most of those men had neither clothes nor bedding to lie on. God alone knoweth what befell Us in that most foul-smelling and gloomy place!” Bahá’u’lláh’s feet were placed in stocks, and around His neck were fastened the Qará-Guhar chains of such galling weight that their mark remained imprinted upon His body all the days of His life. “A heavy chain,” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá Himself has testified, “was placed about His neck by which He was chained to five other Bábís; these fetters were locked together by strong, very heavy, bolts and screws. His clothes were torn to pieces, also His headdress. In this terrible condition He was kept for four months.” For three days and three nights, He was denied all manner of food and drink. Sleep was impossible to Him. The place was chill and damp, filthy, fever-stricken, infested with vermin, and filled with a noisome stench. Animated by a relentless hatred, His enemies went even so far as to intercept and poison His food, in the hope of obtaining the favor of the mother of their sovereign, His most implacable foe—an attempt which, though it impaired His health for years to come, failed to achieve its purpose. “‘Abdu’l-Bahá,” Dr. J. E. Esslemont records in his book, “tells how, one day, He was allowed to enter the prison yard

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The entrance to the Síyáh-Chál, where Bahá’u’lláh was imprisoned for four months under terrible conditions.
Reprinted with permission of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the Hawaiian Islands.

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to see His beloved Father, where He came out for His daily exercise. Bahá’u’lláh was terribly altered, so ill He could hardly walk, His hair and beard unkempt, His neck galled and swollen from the pressure of a heavy steel collar, His body bent by the weight of His chains.”

‘Abdu’l-Bahá was only nine years old at the time; at the sight of His Father, He fainted and was carried home unconscious.

Nabíl thus describes the Síyáh-Chál: The darkness, the filth, and the character of the prisoners, combined to make of that pestilential dungeon the most abominable place to which human beings could be condemned. . . . The place was infested with vermin, and the stench of that gloomy abode was enough to crush the very spirits of those who were condemned to suffer its horrors. Such were the conditions under which He was held down that even one of the executioners who were watching over Him was moved with pity. Several times this man attempted to induce Him to take some tea which he had managed to introduce into the dungeon under the cover of his garments. Bahá’u’lláh, however, would refuse to drink it.

Nabíl also quotes Bahá’u’lláh’s description of the prison:

“We were all huddled together in one cell, our feet in stocks, and around our necks fastened the most galling of chains. The air we breathed was laden with the foulest impurities, while the floor on which we sat was covered with filth and infested with vermin. No ray of light was allowed to penetrate that pestilential dungeon or to warm its icy-coldness. We were placed in two rows, each facing the other. We had taught them to repeat certain verses which, every night, they chanted with extreme fervour. ‘God is sufficient unto me; He verily is the All-sufficing!’ one row would intone, while the other would reply: ‘In Him let the trusting trust.’ The chorus of these gladsome voices would continue to peal out until the early hours of the morning. Their reverberation would fill the dungeon, and, piercing its massive walls, would reach the ears of Náṣiri’d-Dín Sháh, whose palace was not far distant from the place where we were imprisoned. . . .

“Every day Our gaolers, entering Our cell, would call the name of one of Our companions, bidding him arise and follow them to the foot of the gallows. With what eagerness would the owner of that name respond to that solemn call! Relieved of his chains, he would spring to his feet and, in a state of uncontrollable delight, would approach and embrace Us. We would seek to comfort him with the assurance of an everlasting life in the world beyond, and, filling his heart with hope and joy, would send him forth to win the crown of glory.”

The chains placed around Bahá’u’lláh’s neck were so infamous in penal circles as to have acquired names, the Qará-Guhar (literally, big and heavy) and the Salásil. They were so heavy that a wooden fork was used to support their weight. Qará-Guhar weighed about 112 pounds (51 kilograms) and was heavier than Salásil. In Stories of Bahá’u’lláh, Bahá’í historian ‘Alí-Akbar Furútan relates an account from the second volume of Nabíl’s narrative, not yet translated from Persian, about Bahá’u’lláh’s imprisonment in the Síyáh-Chál: “Describing His confinement in the Síyáh-Chál, the Blessed Beauty [Bahá’u’lláh] recalled: [Page 11] ‘The weight of the chain placed about Our neck was difficult to bear [the heaviest chain weighed over fifty kilos], but having the thumbs of both hands bound together behind the back was even more aggravating. The royal guards were unyielding, but the executioners would show us kindness.”

In a prayer Bahá’u’lláh also testified to the suffering He endured in the Síyáh-Chál:

My God, My Master, My Desire! . . . Thou hast created this atom of dust through the consummate power of Thy might, and nurtured Him with Thine hands which none can chain up. . . . Thou hast destined for Him trials and tribulations which no tongue can describe, nor any of Thy Tablets adequately recount. The throat Thou didst accustom to the touch of silk Thou hast, in the end, clasped with strong chains, and the body Thou didst ease with brocades and velvets Thou hast at last subjected to the abasement of a dungeon. Thy decree hath shackled Me with unnumbered fetters, and cast about My neck chains that none can sunder. A number of years have passed during which afflictions have, like showers of mercy, rained upon Me. . . . How many the nights during which the weight of chains and fetters allowed Me no rest, and how numerous the days during which peace and tranquillity were denied Me, by reason of that wherewith the hands and tongues of men have afflicted Me! Both bread and water which Thou hast, through Thy all-embracing mercy, allowed unto the beasts of the field, they have, for a time, forbidden unto this servant, and the things they refused to inflict upon such as have seceded from Thy Cause, the same have they suffered to be inflicted upon Me, until, finally, Thy decree was irrevocably fixed, and Thy behest summoned this servant to depart out of Persia, accompanied by a number of frail-bodied men and children of tender age, at this time when the cold is so intense that one cannot even speak, and ice and snow so abundant that it is impossible to move.

After His release from prison, Bahá’u’lláh was exiled from Persia and forced to undertake a difficult winter journey on foot from Tehran to Baghdad. Historical accounts indicate that He had difficulty walking and was unable to travel immediately after His release from prison. He had to be nursed back to health before He and His family could begin their journey to Iraq on 12 January 1853.

Thus began a lifetime of imprisonment and exile that was to last until Bahá’u’lláh’s death in 1892. He lived in Baghdad for nine years, two of which He spent in seclusion in the nearby mountains of Sulaymáníyyih disguised as a dervish. He wrote that “‘Many a night I had no food for sustenance, and many a day My body found no rest.’” Bahá’u’lláh was subsequently exiled to Adrianople (now Edirne, Turkey) where He arrived on 12 December 1863. It was here that a second attempt to poison Bahá’u’lláh was made. His half-brother, Mírzá Yaḥyá, had become increasingly jealous of his brother’s leadership of the small band of exiles and the followers of the Báb in Persia and of the Bábís’ love and respect for Him. The events leading up to the poisoning have been described by historian H. M. Balyuzi:

Desperate designs to poison Bahá’u’lláh and His companions, and thereby reanimate his [Yaḥyá’s] own defunct leadership, began, approximately a year after their arrival in Adrianople, to agitate his mind. Well aware of the erudition of his half-brother, Áqáy-i-Kalím, in matters pertaining to medicine, he, under various [Page 12] pretexts, sought enlightenment from him regarding the effects of certain herbs and poisons, and then began, contrary to his wont, to invite Bahá’u’lláh to his home, where, one day, having smeared His teacup with a substance he had concocted, he succeeded in poisoning Him sufficiently to produce a serious illness which lasted no less than a month, and which was accompanied by severe pains and high fever, the aftermath of which left Bahá’u’lláh with a shaking hand till the end of His life. So grave was His condition that a foreign doctor, named Shíshmán, was called in to attend Him. The doctor was so appalled by His livid hue that he deemed His case hopeless, and, after having fallen at His feet, retired from His presence without prescribing a remedy. A few days later that doctor fell ill and died. Prior to his death Bahá’u’lláh had intimated that doctor Shíshmán had sacrificed his life for Him. To Mírzá Áqá Ján, sent by Bahá’u’lláh to visit him, the doctor had stated that God had answered his prayers, and that after his death a certain Dr. Chúpán, whom he knew to be reliable, should, whenever necessary, be called in his stead.

In the International Bahá’í Archives in Haifa, Israel, a blood-stained handkerchief that Bahá’u’lláh used to wipe His mouth on the night He fell ill is preserved.

Medical Consequences

Bahá’u’lláh describes His tribulations in several places in His writings, although He seems to understate His suffering, perhaps to preserve the dignity of His station. However, close examination of the events surrounding His arrests, imprisonments, and the poisonings, coupled with a review of the potential medical consequences of such events reveals a more complete picture of Bahá’u’lláh’s suffering. The general effects of torture have been described in medical literature in recent years. Unfortunately, most of this literature is anecdotal because patients who have been tortured often do not receive medical attention. Nonetheless, the effects of certain kinds of mistreatment are documented, and the medical consequences can be described.

In December 1848 Bahá’u’lláh underwent the bastinado, the beating of the soles of the feet with a rod. This form of torture is described in medical literature as “falanga” or “phalanga” and is known to cause bleeding from under the toenails with associated infections, massive swelling of the legs that may lead to inadequate blood flow to the lower legs, aseptic necrosis (decreased b1ood flow causing bone destruction) of the toes, decreased function of the leg veins, bony thickening of the heel bone and foot, and chronic pain when walking.

Following His arrest in August 1852 Bahá’u’lláh was subjected to a forced march from Níyávarán to the Síyáh-Chál in Tehran, a distance of 15 miles (24 kilometers) during which the elevation drops drastically. The average peak daily temperature in mid-August is 102°F (39°C); during the summer in Tehran there is almost no precipitation and no clouds to provide shade. If Bahá’u’lláh suffered any aftereffects from being bastinadoed less than four years earlier, they would have increased His pain during the march. He was forced to walk in front of the royal horsemen at their pace, barefoot and in chains. From historical accounts it is known that during the march to Tehran Bahá’u’lláh was exposed to the full force of the sun with no protection—His hat was taken from Him, He was barefoot, and His garments were [Page 13] stripped off. He was stoned several times during His journey and at least once may have had a stone thrown in His face. From a medical standpoint, it can be assumed that Bahá’u’lláh was in a weakened condition due to fatigue, heat exposure, bruising, dehydration, and sunburn before His arrival at the Síyáh-Chál. It is also reasonable to assume that His feet were cut and bleeding from His prolonged barefoot march over the rough terrain.

The medical consequences of the mistreatment Bahá’u’lláh received in the Síyáh-Chál are varied and severe. The immobility that the stocks and neck chains enforced upon Bahá’u’lláh over a four-month period would lead to atrophy, or at least a weakening and thinning of His muscles, and osteoarthritis, a form of arthritis in which the joints undergo degenerative changes. Such conditions would also predispose one to the development of flexion contractures, the formation of fibrous tissue in joints that are immobilized and left unused for prolonged periods of time. If untreated, flexion contractures lead to a loss of the normal mobility of the joints and cause the early development of arthritis.

According to the authoritative historical accounts and Bahá’u’lláh’s own writings, Bahá’u’lláh was forced to wear one of two chains around His neck at all times, chains that left permanent scars. It is likely that these heavy chains had rough surfaces or edges. Chronic pressure on the skin of His neck would prevent normal blood flow to that area and, over time, could lead to a breakdown of the skin and the production of pressure sores. The development of pressure sores from the chains would have explained the permanent scarring that Bahá’u’lláh had following His imprisonment. Given the unsanitary conditions of the Síyáh-Chál, Bahá’u’lláh’s direct exposure to the cold, damp floor, and the presence of vermin, the chance of infection of the abraded neck wound was great. The exact nature of the vermin in the Síyáh-Chál is unknown, but creatures common to old prisons include rats, lice, fleas, and various insects. The presence of such creatures would increase the likelihood of infections. It is also possible, although He does not mention them, that Bahá’u’lláh suffered recurrent fevers, chills, and rigors, since they are common afflictions among prisoners.

As stated in the historical accounts, the Síyáh-Chál was an abandoned underground cistern that had been converted into a prison. Bahá’u’lláh was housed at the bottom of three steep flights of stairs, the only entrance or exit to the prison. A dungeon such as the Síyáh-Chál would have climatic conditions similar to a cave. In underground caves located in similar climates the temperature and humidity show little variation beyond a short zone of transition near the surface. Relative humidity in caves is often close to 100 percent. The temperature within caves is equivalent to the mean annual surface temperature of the region in which the cave is located. The mean surface temperature can be obtained from meteorological tables or calculated from altitude and latitude. In Tehran the mean surface temperature is 60°F (16°C). Using the known altitude and latitude in a formula from a textbook on speleology one can calculate a mean temperature of 57°F [Page 14] (14°C) for the Síyáh-Chál. In some caves, cold air is trapped within the cavity during the winter, and the temperature is much lower; this occurs because cold air is heavier and tends to sink to the bottom of the cave. In this situation there may even be an accumulation of ice throughout the year even though the surface temperature may rise to high levels during the summer. Since the Síyáh-Chál was an old cistern, it may well have had such temperature characteristics. Therefore, the temperature that Bahá’u’lláh was exposed to for a period of four months was 60°F or lower at a 100 percent relative humidity. This constant chilly temperature combined with the dampness would produce conditions of severe cold exposure. The effects of chronic cold exposure are worsened by damp clothing and contact with the cold surfaces.

In addition to suffering the effects of the chilly temperature of the Síyáh-Chál, Bahá’u’lláh was denied food and drink for three days and nights after His arrival in this prison. Deprivation of food worsens the effects of cold exposure, as does dehydration. Studies have shown that dehydration of even 10 percent will cause a further worsening of the effects of cold exposure with a 30 to 40 percent decrease in thermal control.

Also, according to the statements of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh’s clothing was “torn to pieces, also His headdress. In this terrible condition He was kept for four months.” Without clothing, heat loss is more rapid. Clothing loses most of its insulating ability when damp or when it is in contact with the ground. The larger the surface area of the body in contact with the ground, the more rapid the heat loss. An environmental temperature of less than 77°F (25°C) results in a decrease of the core temperature of a naked person. Bahá’u’lláh was left with minimal clothing that certainly became damp as He was forced by the leg stocks and neck chains to sit on the ground. In all likelihood, a significant proportion of His body surface area was in contact with cold, damp surfaces. Bahá’u’lláh was subjected to such conditions for four months; this would have weakened Him to the point where He would be susceptible to pneumonia or other supervening infections, which, fortunately, He seems to have escaped. Continued exposure to cold alone leads to consumption of the body’s fat stores and would have caused rapid weight loss even without food deprivation.

In addition to receiving no food for the first seventy-two hours of His imprisonment, it is unlikely that Bahá’u’lláh received adequate food at any time during His four months in the Síyáh-Chál. Although His family brought food to the guards for Him, there is no way of knowing whether it reached Him. On at least one occasion during His internment, Bahá’u’lláh’s enemies were able to introduce poison into His food; by chance Bahá’u’lláh recognized a peculiar taste and refused to consume all of it. In addition, Nabíl comments in The Dawn-Breakers that it is unlikely that Bahá’u’lláh would have eaten food offered to Him if His companions had little or no food themselves. There are many examples of Bahá’u’lláh’s willingness to accept suffering in place of others, such as His insistence in 1848 that He receive the bastinado in their place. At one time in the Síyáh-Chál He gave His shoes to one of His companions who was being led to his execution. On another occasion Bahá’u’lláh and His companions refused a platter of roast lamb sent to the prisoners by the Shah. [Page 15] Considering all of these factors, it is quite likely that Bahá’u’lláh suffered a considerable level of malnutrition during His imprisonment.

Severe malnutrition under conditions of stress can lead to extremely rapid weight loss of five and a half pounds (two and a half kilograms) per day. As malnutrition progresses, it also leads to anemia (decreased hemoglobin in the blood, which inhibits the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and leads to fatigue, dizziness, headache, insomnia, and pallor), hypoalbuminemia (low protein in the blood associated with edema, or generalized swelling), pneumonia, and the inability to walk. Malnutrition also predisposes the sufferer to hypothermia and reduces the body’s immunity to infection. It would also have slowed the healing of any wounds or bruises that Bahá’u’lláh had suffered. We can also surmise that He suffered severe dehydration during those first seventy-two hours with attendant dry mouth, diminished skin turgor (resiliency or fullness), and orthostatic hypotension —a rapid decrease in blood pressure when standing.

In His own statements, Bahá’u’lláh noted that He was unable to sleep except on a few brief occasions. Clearly, He was also suffering from exhaustion, which would make Him more susceptible to infection and the effects of cold exposure.

In addition to torture and mistreatment, Bahá’u’lláh was poisoned for the first time during His stay in the Síyáh-Chál. Unfortunately, there is little information on the exact nature of the poisoning (when it occurred and what substance was used), but it is known that His enemies intended to kill Him by this means and that He suffered the effects for several years. The fact that He survived this poisoning attempt and the massive ill treatment He received in the Síyáh-Chál is astonishing and clearly contrary to the expectations of His enemies.

Some years after His stay in the Síyáh-Chál, Bahá’u’lláh was poisoned for the second time, this time in Adrianople, Turkey. The symptoms that Bahá’u’lláh suffered as a result included a serious illness lasting at least one month with severe pains, high fever, a “livid hue,” and a shaking or tremor of His hands that was noticeable in His handwriting for the rest of His life. On the night He fell ill, Bahá’u’lláh suffered bleeding from His mouth. This may have been caused by stomatitis—inflammation of the oral cavity —which can cause cracking and bleeding of the lips, mouth, and tongue. Alternatively, He may have suffered from hemoptysis —coughing up blood. In the case of hemoptysis, the blood comes from the upper respiratory tract or the lungs. Some toxins or poisons can interfere with the normal blood-clotting process and can produce diffuse bleeding, which usually first becomes apparent with bleeding from the nose, mouth, or gastrointestinal tract. Alternatively, the poison may have simply caused an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat with bleeding only occurring locally. In any case, it appears that the poison caused a permanent tremor of His hands and, therefore, affected His central nervous system in some way.

It is difficult to determine which poison was used. The historical account tells us that He was poisoned by Mírzá Yaḥyá, who obtained advice from Bahá’u’lláh’s faithful brother, the innocent Áqáy-i-Kalím, regarding certain herbs and poisons. Both of these men were from Persia, where poisoning was commonly used to eliminate rivals. Thus it is possible that Bahá’u’lláh was poisoned by something commonly used in Persia at the time, probably a plant or herb.

[Page 16] The Significance of
Bahá’u’lláh’s Suffering

IN God Passes By, Shoghi Effendi divides the life of Bahá’u’lláh into four stages. The initial stage was the first twenty-seven years of His life, which were spent in relative ease as a member of a rich family and were characterized by His great attention and service to the poor. The second stage of His life—nine years—saw Bahá’u’lláh become a leading follower of the Báb and arise to champion His Cause. The third stage consisted of His four-month imprisonment in the Síyáh-Chál. The final and most fruitful stage was the remaining forty years of His life, which included several stages of His exile and imprisonment. That Shoghi Effendi considers the time Bahá’u’lláh spent in the Síyáh-Chál as one of the four phases of His event-laden life attests to the significance of this time. The four months are significant because of the events surrounding His imprisonment, the severity of His suffering, and the dramatic nature of the Revelation of His mission as God’s messenger to the age of human maturity.

Bahá’u’lláh thus explains the reasons for His suffering:

The Ancient Beauty hath consented to be bound with chains that mankind may be released from its bondage, and hath accepted to be made a prisoner within this most mighty Stronghold that the whole world may attain unto true liberty. He hath drained to its dregs the cup of sorrow, that all the peoples of the earth may attain unto abiding joy, and be filled with gladness. This is of the mercy of your Lord, the Compassionate, the Most Merciful.

In another passage He states that He willingly accepted the tribulations for humanity’s sake to assist in their detachment from earthly desires and selfish pursuits:

Whoso will reflect upon the tribulations We have suffered, his soul will assuredly melt away with sorrow. Thy Lord Himself beareth witness to the truth of My words. We have sustained the weight of all calamities to sanctify you from all earthly corruption, and ye are yet indifferent.

In yet another passage He explains that He bore His suffering “with the utmost willingness and resignation, so that the souls of men may be edified, and the Word of God be exalted.”

Baha’u’lléh also gives reasons for His not dwelling on His own sufferings:

Couldst thou be told what hath befallen the Ancient Beauty, thou wouldst flee into the wilderness, and weep with a great weeping. In thy grief, thou wouldst smite thyself on the head, and cry out as one stung by the sting of the adder. Be thou grateful to God, that We have refused to divulge unto thee the secrets of those unsearchable decrees that have been sent down unto Us from the heaven of the Will of thy Lord, the Most Powerful, the Almighty.

In another passage He explains that

The tribulations We have sustained are such that any pen that recounteth them cannot but be overwhelmed with anguish. No one of them that truly believe and uphold the unity of God can bear the burden of their recital. So great have been Our sufferings that even the eyes of Our enemies have wept over Us, and beyond them those of every discerning person.

Again, He says that “The Pen of the Most High is disinclined to recount, in this connection, the woes it hath suffered. To reveal them would, no doubt, plunge into sorrow [Page 17] the favored among the faithful, they that truly uphold the unity of God and are wholly devoted to His Cause.”

In the Tablet of Visitation, a prayer often read at the Shrines of Bahá’u’lláh and the Báb and in commemoration of Their passing, Bahá’u’lláh indicates that His sufferings exceeded those of earlier Messengers of God:

I bear witness that the eye of creation hath never gazed upon one wronged like Thee. Thou wast immersed all the days of Thy life beneath an ocean of tribulations. At one time Thou wast in chains and fetters; at another Thou wast threatened by the sword of Thine enemies. Yet, despite all this, Thou didst enjoin upon all men to observe what had been prescribed unto Thee by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Wise.

In another passage He says that what He suffered in the Síyáh-Chál “is beyond compare or equal” and goes on to add that His “grief exceedeth all the woes to which Jacob gave vent, and all the afflictions of Job are but a part of My sorrows!’”

Even though Bahá’u’lláh’s sufferings exceeded those of all previous Manifestations of God, one can draw several parallels between the suffering of Christ (and other Manifestations of God) and that of Bahá’u’lláh. All suffered to prove the immortality of the soul:

If the spirit were not immortal, how could the Manifestations of God endure such terrible trials?

Why did Christ Jesus suffer the fearful death on the cross?

Why did Muḥammad bear persecutions?

Why did the Báb make the supreme sacrifice and why did Bahá’u’lláh pass the years of his life in prison?

Why should all this suffering have been, if not to prove the everlasting life of the spirit?

Christ suffered, He accepted all His trials because of the immortality of His spirit.

Both Christ and Bahá’u’lláh also suffered to establish the example of sacrifice in the world, thus teaching humankind that detachment from the world is necessary for obtaining spiritual life. Christ submitted to His sufferings and asked His followers to heed His example: “he who does not take his cross and follow after me is not worthy of me.” Bahá’u’lláh wrote, “My body hath endured imprisonment that ye may be released from the bondage of self.” The prisons in which Bahá’u’lláh was incarcerated, the Síyáh-Chál and the prison in ‘Akká, have the same symbolic spiritual significance for Bahá’ís that the cross has for Christians. When one contemplates the powerful example that Bahá’u’lláh has given humanity, it becomes possible to make sacrifices and to free oneself from unworthy attachments.

Finally, both the sufferings of Christ and Bahá’u’lláh provide the spiritual impetus for the flowering of new stages in the development of humanity’s life on earth. Of Christ’s suffering, Bahá’u’lláh Himself wrote:

Know thou that when the Son of Man yielded up His breath to God, the whole creation wept with a great weeping. By sacrificing Himself, however, a fresh capacity was infused into all created things. Its evidences, as witnessed in all the peoples of the earth, are now manifest before thee. [Page 18] The deepest wisdom which the sages have uttered, the profoundest learning which any mind hath unfolded, the arts which the ablest hands have produced, the influence exerted by the most potent of rulers, are but manifestations of the quickening power released by His transcendent, His all-pervasive, and resplendent Spirit.

About His own suffering, Bahá’u’lláh counsels humanity not to be dismayed with the indignities He was made to suffer, saying:

To whatever place We may be banished, however great the tribulation We may suffer, they who are the people of God must, with fixed resolve and perfect confidence, keep their eyes directed towards the Day Spring of Glory, and be busied in whatever may be conducive to the betterment of the world and the education of its peoples. All that hath befallen Us in the past hath advanced the interests of Our Revelation and blazoned its fame; and all that may befall Us in the future will have a like result.

Thus He bids humankind to have confidence in the strength and ultimate power of His Revelation “whose supreme mission” is the achievement of the “organic and spiritual unity of the whole body of nations” and the “coming of age of the entire human race.”

---

The prison barracks of Akka, Israel, where Bahá’u’lláh was held from August 1868 to November 1870.

---

[Page 19]

I Eat My Words

I was always a hungry child

I tore at road signs and billboards

Devouring them one after another

As they clicked by the car window

I clutched the cereal box

First taking the sides—

Where was this stuff made?

Saving the delicious back for last

I tore into encyclopedias

Plucking food, scouring

Pictures, filling up on

Aardvarks, and the Fiji Islands,

Constitutional monarchy, and the gum tree

I grew strong from this feast

But I wanted more

The more I ate, the more I questioned

The more I learned, the more I doubted

My appetite only increased

And then I found Him

I saw His strong words of beauty and

praise for a God that I thought was absent

Delicious, aromatic words arising from the Persian

desert and mountain

I dove into His Hidden Words

Searching “. . . that which is descended from the realm of

glory, uttered by the tongue of power and might”

And the hunger, the search for truth in words, began to ease

Now, I still yearn to know

But I’ve become calmer

From those earlier days.

Every once in a while, I feel those stirrings;

I turn them and look at them;

Now old friends, faithful friends.

—Dale Fowler

Copyright © 1991 by Dale Fowler

[Page 20]

[Page 21]

Toward a New Environmental
Stewardship

BY MICHAEL KARLBERG

Copyright © 1994 by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States.

IN JANUARY 1990 leading thinkers from around the world convened in Moscow for the Global Forum on Environment and Development for Human Survival. One thousand delegates, representing a cross section of the world’s scientific, political, and religious communities, attended the week-long conference. One of the outstanding features of the historic gathering was an appeal, by consensus of the entire assemblage, for humanity to “find a new spiritual and ethical basis for human activities on Earth” and to “enter into a new communion with Nature.”

During the course of the gathering, a number of prominent scientists expanded on the theme. In a proclamation entitled “Preserving and Cherishing the Earth: An Appeal for Joint Commitment in Science and Religion,” they asserted that the problems facing humanity today must “be recognized from the outset as having a religious as well as scientific dimension,” that the “environmental crisis requires radical changes . . . in individual behavior,” and that the “historical record makes clear that religious teaching, example, and leadership are powerfully able to influence personal conduct and commitment.” They further stated:

As scientists, many of us have had profound experiences of awe and reverence before the universe. We understand that what is regarded as sacred is more likely to be treated with care and respect. Our planetary home should be so regarded. Efforts to safeguard and cherish the environment need to be infused with a vision of the sacred. . . . Thus, there is a vital role for both religion and science.

The statements made at the Global Forum reflect an unprecedented acknowledgment by the scientific community that the moral, ethical, and inspirational aspects of human nature—which have always been the very substance of religious thought—must play a prominent role in efforts to safeguard the environment.

In October 1990 the appeal for a new level of spiritual commitment was echoed in the “Universal Code of Environmental Conduct” issued by the Non-Governmental Organization/Media Symposium on Communication for Environment convened in Bangkok, Thailand. This second declaration, however, took the message one step further than the Global Forum proclamation by appealing not only to spiritually based changes in individual behavior, conduct, and commitment but to a unified response by all the “citizens of this earth.” “The world,” it began,

is in a deep environmental crisis. This crisis is rooted in global patterns of human [Page 22] behaviour that are ecologically unsustainable, socially alienating and economically unjust. We need a transformation of human purpose that unites material and spiritual realities and creates a common conscience. . . .

. . . unity is essential if diverse people are to work towards a common future . . . .

Both the Bangkok and Moscow proclamations invoke elements common to all of the world’s religions—namely, a spiritual world view and a concomitant change in standards of human behavior. The Bangkok Declaration in particular explicitly states the need for global unity in this “transformation of human purpose.”

In light of the essential need for unity, the Bahá’í Faith, a newly emerging world religion, merits attention. Not only does it promulgate the spiritual values common to all religions, but it also offers social teachings that speak directly to the problems of this global age. Its pivotal teachings are world unity and the establishment of unity among the peoples and nations of the world. Whereas the social teachings of past religions were concerned with the relationship of the individual to family, tribe, or even state—according to the exigencies of the age in which the religions appeared—the Bahá’í Faith expands the scope of social teachings to include the relationship of the individual, and any group of individuals (racial, ethnic, political or other), to the entire world community.

Given its emphasis on world unity and global cooperation, the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith provide a unique “new spiritual and ethical basis for human activities on Earth.” Four aspects of the Bahá’í model must be examined: the Bahá’í Faith’s vision of nature; Bahá’í principles that bear directly on humanity’s relation to the natural world; the Bahá’í perspective on the underlying causes of the environmental crisis; and the Bahá’í prescription for world unity and global cooperation.

The Bahá’í Vision of Nature

THE BAHÁ’Í FAITH is founded on a belief in one God—the “inmost Reality of all things,” the “Primal Will,” the “unknowable Essence.” The natural world, the Bahá’í writings assert, is a reflection of this unknowable Essence on earth. “Nature,” wrote Baha’u’lléh, the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, “is God’s Will and is its expression in and through the contingent world.” Therefore,

whatever is on the earth is a direct evidence of the revelation within it of the attributes and names of God, inasmuch as within every atom are enshrined the signs that bear eloquent testimony to the revelation of that most great Light. . . . How resplendent the luminaries of knowledge that shine in an atom, and how vast the oceans of wisdom that surge within a drop!

On another occasion Bahá’u’lláh, addressing Himself to God, wrote:

Every time I turn my gaze to Thine earth, I am made to recognize the evidences of Thy power and the tokens of Thy bounty. And when I behold the sea, I find that it speaketh to me of Thy majesty, and of the potency of Thy might, and of Thy sovereignty and Thy grandeur. And at whatever [Page 23] time I contemplate the mountains, I am led to discover the ensigns of Thy victory and the standards of Thine omnipotence.

. . . I can hear from the whisper of the winds the sound of Thy glorification and praise, and can recognize in the murmur of the waters the voice that proclaimeth Thy virtues and Thine attributes, and can apprehend from the rustling of the leaves the mysteries that have been irrevocably ordained by Thee in Thy realm.

Such passages in the Bahá’í writings portray the natural world as beautiful and mysterious, a sacred reflection of the divine. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh’s eldest son and appointed successor, urged humanity to contemplate these mysteries of nature. Calling attention to the order and balance underlying the physical universe, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote:

Reflect upon the inner realities of the universe, the secret wisdoms involved, the enigmas, the inter-relationships, the rules that govern all. For every part of the universe is connected with every other part by ties that are very powerful and admit of no imbalance.

In another passage, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá expanded His explanation of the balance and unity of nature; His definition of ecology seems a necessary lesson at the end of the twentieth century. He explains that

even as the human body in this world, which is outwardly composed of different limbs and organs, is in reality a closely integrated, coherent entity, similarly the structure of the physical world is like unto a single being whose limbs and members are inseparably linked together.

Were one to observe with an eye that discovereth the realities of all things, it would become clear that the greatest relationship that bindeth the world of being together lieth in the range of created things themselves, and that co-operation, mutual aid and reciprocity are essential characteristics in the unified body of the world of being, inasmuch as all created things are closely related together and each is influenced by the other or deriveth benefit therefrom, either directly or indirectly.

Such passages in the Bahá’í writings provide a unique scriptural basis for revering and appreciating nature. They also convey the subtleties, interrelationships, and delicate balances of the physical world.

The appreciation of nature is further reinforced in the Bahá’í writings by extensive use of analogy and metaphor drawn from the physical world—the imagery of nature is embedded in the very language of the Bahá’í writings and is often used to represent spiritual [Page 24] realities. A Bahá’í prayer for children illustrates this:

O God! Educate these children. These children are the plants of Thine orchard, the flowers of Thy meadow, the roses of Thy garden. Let Thy rain fall upon them; let the Sun of Reality shine upon them with Thy love. Let Thy breeze refresh them in order that they may be trained, grow and develop, and appear in the utmost beauty. Thou art the Giver. Thou art the Compassionate.

Daily reading of Bahá’í writings can cultivate a world view that cherishes and reveres the wonders of nature. They articulate, in the words of the Moscow Declaration, an appreciation for nature that is “infused with a vision of the sacred.” This, however, is only a starting point for practical environmental stewardship.

Spiritual Principles Guiding
Humanity’s Relationship to Nature

BAHÁ’ÍS believe that “There are spiritual principles, or what some call human values, by which solutions can be found to every social problem.” The challenge in dealing with the complex social issues currently facing humanity, Bahá’ís assert, is “to raise the context to the level of principle, as distinct from pure pragmatism.”

The necessity of spiritual solutions for social problems bears on individual as well as collective actions. For the individual, commitment to spiritual principles guides behavior. It provides a moral reference point in common daily actions, and requires, in some cases, the submission of self-centered impulses in consideration of the common good. For society, commitment to shared principles provides a means for agreement and a guide for action. It thus facilitates collective decision making and problem solving.

As the Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing and legislative body of the Bahá’í Faith, explains:

The essential merit of spiritual principle is that it not only presents a perspective which harmonizes with that which is immanent in human nature, it also induces an attitude, a dynamic, a will, an aspiration, which facilitate the discovery and implementation of practical measures. Leaders of governments and all in authority would be well served in their efforts to solve problems if they would first seek to identify the principles involved and then be guided by them.

The Bahá’í writings identify the principles to which Bahá’ís around the world are committed; many of these principles relate, either directly or indirectly, to humanity’s relationship with the natural world. A few of the principles most pertinent to the environmental dialogue are outlined below.

Stewardship of the Earth. A central principle of the Bahá’í environmental ethic is stated emphatically by Bahá’u’lláh: “There is no glory for him that committeth disorder on the earth after it hath been made so good.” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá reinforced this principle by affirming that the earth should be tended with “the care of a skilful gardener.”

The full implications of the principle of stewardship may be understood in light of the Bahá’í teaching that the physical universe [Page 25] is a matrix for the refinement and development of the human soul, even as the womb of the mother is the matrix for a child’s initial physical development. Bahá’u’lláh informs humanity that God has “ordained for thy training every atom in existence and the essence of all created things.” One aspect of training, in turn, is learning the principle of stewardship of the earth. Thus the Bahá’í teachings associate stewardship of the earth with one of the purposes of human life—namely, spiritual training and development.

The Value of Diversity. Related to the principle of stewardship is that of the value the Bahá’í teachings place on diversity. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that diversity in this world is “the essence of perfection” and “contributeth to the beauty, efficiency and perfection of the whole.” The preservation of genetic and biotic diversity, a central issue in the environmental movement, is thus a logical conclusion of the application of this principle.

Impressing upon humanity the importance of environmental stewardship, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that diversity of form is an expression of a universal law underlying the vast evolutionary processes of the physical universe and that

in the beginning matter was one, and that one matter appeared in different aspects in each element. Thus various forms were produced, and these various aspects as they were produced became permanent, and each element was specialized. . . . Then these elements became composed, and organized and combined in infinite forms. . . .

. . . from the composition and combination of elements, from their decomposition, from their measure, and from the effect of other beings upon them, resulted forms, endless realities and innumerable beings. . . . this terrestrial globe, having once found existence, grew and developed in the matrix of the universe, and came forth in different forms and conditions, until gradually it attained this present perfection, and became adorned with innumerable beings. . . .

‘Abdu’l-Bahá further urges humanity to learn from the lessons inherent in nature:

Consider the world of created beings, how varied and diverse they are in species, yet with one sole origin. All the differences that appear are those of outward form and colour. This diversity of type is apparent throughout the whole of nature.

. . . Let us look . . . at the beauty in diversity, the beauty of harmony, and learn a lesson. . . .

Preservation of the earth’s diversity is thus a practical expression of the application of the fundamental Bahá’í principle of unity in diversity.

Kindness to All Beings. Yet another principle related to that of the stewardship of the earth is that of kindness to all beings. This principle is expressed throughout the Bahá’í writings. In one passage ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes:

it is not only their fellow human beings that the beloved of God must treat with mercy and compassion, rather must they show forth the utmost loving-kindness to every living creature. . . .

Train your children from their earliest days to be infinitely tender and loving to animals.

[Page 26]

. . . Tenderness and loving-kindness are basic principles of God’s heavenly Kingdom.

Thus the expression of “tenderness and loving-kindness” toward all living beings is not a matter of mere ethical speculation or moral debate. It is a firmly established spiritual principle that bears directly on humankind’s relationship with the natural world.

Responsible Uses of Science. The Bahá’í Faith teaches that science and religion are, by their very nature, in accord—that they reveal complementary aspects of one truth. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that religion is the “promoter of truth” and cannot, consequently, oppose scientific knowledge. He also states that religion without science quickly falls into “the quagmire of superstition,” while science without religion descends into “the despairing slough of materialism.” The Bahá’í writings thus encourage scientific pursuit but assert that its application must be morally guided. Commenting on the responsibility humanity has in the realm of science, the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice writes that

Man, possessed of an inner faculty which plants and animals do not have, a power which enables him to discover the secrets of nature . . . has a special responsibility to use his God-given powers for positive ends. The Universal House of Justice indicates that “the proper exercise of this responsibility is the key to whether his inventive genius produces beneficial results, or creates havoc in the material world.”

At the turn of the last century ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stated that the capacity for scientific endeavor “is the most praiseworthy power of man, for through its employment and exercise the betterment of the human race is accomplished, . . . and the spirit and mysteries of God become manifest.”

‘Abdu’l-Bahá tempers His praise, however, with the caution that “any agency whatever, though it be the instrument of mankind’s greatest good, is capable of misuse. Its proper use or abuse depends on the varying degrees of enlightenment, capacity, faith, honesty, devotion and highmindedness” of those who exercise responsibility over it.

Moderation. Another Bahá’í teaching pertains to humanity’s relation to the natural world not to overstep “the bounds of moderation.” Bahá’u’lláh warns that if “carried to excess, civilization will prove as prolific a source of evil as it had been of goodness when kept within the restraints of moderation.”

Moderation bears on every aspect of humanity’s relation to and impact on the natural world. It is a standard that guides patterns of consumption, waste, and the accumulation of material possessions. All aspects of human activity, Bahá’u’lláh makes clear, “are subject to this same principle of moderation.”

The principle of moderation attains a yet fuller significance in light of the Bahá’í belief that human dignity and happiness are not found solely in materialistic pursuits. While [Page 27] Bahá’u’lláh encourages humanity to enjoy the richness of the earth and “partake of the benefits it can bestow,” he also warns against “attachment to this world and the vanities thereof.” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that “the honor and exaltation of man must be something more than material riches. Material comforts are only a branch, but the root of the exaltation of man is the good attributes and virtues which are the adornments of his reality.”

The Bahá’í Faith thus rejects the materialistic philosophy that has become one of the dominant features of twentieth-century life. It replaces that philosophy with the belief that the attainment of “good attributes and virtues” is the highest human achievement and that the exercise of moderation in material pursuits is a means of attaining this end. This principle has special relevance in the industrialized countries of the world where rampant materialism has generated gross patterns of consumption, accumulation, and waste, creating inordinate pressures on the world’s ecological systems.

Alleviation of Poverty. The counterpart of the principle of moderation, the alleviation of poverty, pertains to the significant portion of the global population who suffer not from excess but from a lack of the means of subsistence. Environmental degradation is closely linked to human social and economic conditions; poverty, as much as excessive wealth, exerts extreme pressures on the earth’s ecological systems. The deforestation of the Amazon, the desertification of Sub-Saharan Africa, the pollution in Eastern Europe—all are examples of the deleterious effects of poverty on the natural environment.

The alleviation of poverty is a basic Bahá’í teaching, and the consequences of “inordinate disparity between the rich and poor” are clearly anticipated in the Bahá’í writings. Bahá’u’lláh alludes to the consequences of having extremes of wealth and poverty: “O Children of Dust! Tell the rich of the midnight sighing of the poor, lest heedlessness lead them into the path of destruction. . . .”

Generosity, equity, and fairness in economic relations are emphasized throughout the Bahá’í writings as divine virtues. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that

Men must bestir themselves in this matter, and no longer delay in altering conditions which bring the misery of grinding poverty to a very large number of people. The rich must give of their abundance, they must soften their hearts and cultivate a compassionate intelligence, taking thought for those sad ones who are suffering from lack of the very necessities of life.

It is important to note, however, that the Bahá’í writings do not advocate absolute equalization of wealth. Rather, Bahá’ís appeal for the elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty. The solution, the Universal House of Justice writes,

calls for the combined application of spiritual, moral and practical approaches. A fresh look at the problem is required, entailing consultation with experts from a wide spectrum of disciplines, devoid of economic and ideological polemics, and involving the people directly affected in the decisions that must urgently be made.

Unity in World Undertakings. The Bahá’í writings assert that “unity of thought in world undertakings” is an essential requirement of [Page 28] this age. Bahá’ís believe that conscious, unified, global determination is necessary to resolve transnational problems.

Environmental problems provide a prime example of the necessity of global unity. Ecological problems do not respect political boundaries, and it is now generally acknowledged that no nation can resolve them alone. The Universal House of Justice accordingly cites the urgent need in this day for “‘global cooperation of the family of nations in devising and adopting measures designed to preserve the ecological balance.’”

In an age when the technical means for addressing environmental concerns and for coordinating global efforts are largely at hand, international cooperation continues to remain elusive. Commenting on this dilemma, the Universal House of Justice notes that

The scientific and technological advances occurring in this unusually blessed century portend a great surge forward in the social evolution of the planet, and indicate the means by which the practical problems of humanity may be solved. They provide, indeed, the very means for the administration of the complex life of a united world. Yet barriers persist. Doubts, misconceptions, prejudices, suspicions and narrow self-interests beset nations and peoples in their relations one to another.

“The primary question to be resolved,” the Universal House of Justice continues, “is how the present world, with its entrenched pattern of conflict, can change to a world in which harmony and cooperation will prevail.” These changes, the House of Justice concludes, “can be founded only on an unshakable consciousness of the oneness of mankind. . . .”

The Oneness of Humanity

THE PRINCIPLE of the oneness of humankind, the fundamental unity of all peoples of the earth, is perhaps the most fundamental Bahá’í teaching. It protects against all forms of prejudice and division and “calls for a wider loyalty, for a larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race.” Bahá’ís believe that the acceptance of this principle by the generality of humanity is a prerequisite for the unity of thought and global cooperation necessary for the advancement of environmental stewardship. Promotion of the principle of the oneness of humanity is thus a central aspect of Bahá’í life.

The principle of unity is emphasized repeatedly throughout the Bahá’í writings. “Let your vision be world-embracing, rather than confined to your own self,” Bahá’u’lláh writes. And again: “Let not man glory in this that he loveth his country, let him rather glory in this that he loveth his kind.” Most concisely, Bahá’u’lláh states that “The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens.”

Shoghi Effendi, the grandson of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and appointed Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith after ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s passing, explains that

The principle of the Oneness of Mankind—the pivot round which all the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh revolve—is no mere outburst of ignorant emotionalism or an expression of vague and pious hope. Its appeal is not to be merely identified with a reawakening of the spirit of brotherhood and good-will among men. . . . Its message [Page 29] is applicable not only to the individual, but concerns itself primarily with the nature of those essential relationships that must bind all the states and nations as members of one human family. . . . It implies an organic change in the structure of present-day society, a change such as the world has not yet experienced.

Bahá’ís believe that only this “organic change in the structure of present day society,” based on a recognition that all of humanity is part of one global community, can ultimately engender the international will and determination needed to address the world’s current environmental concerns.

Such a change requires a recognition that the wealth and wonders of the earth are the common heritage of all people. It requires just and equitable access to the earth’s resources by all the peoples of the earth. And it requires that the conservation of these resources become the conscious and determined goal of a global society unified in its commitment to both the stewardship of the earth and the well-being of its people.

The Bahá’í Historical Perspective

THE VISION of a unified world community, so fundamental to Bahá’í thought, is regarded by many as unattainable. Bahá’ís hold, however, that its establishment is not only possible, but inevitable. This conviction is based on a historical perspective, enunciated by Bahá’u’lláh in the middle of the last century, that gives meaning to the current condition of human affairs and instills faith in the eventual outcome.

The present calamities that beset human society and threaten the earth’s ecological balance are seen by Bahá’ís as the expressions of a turbulent, transitional stage in human evolution. The Universal House of Justice explains that

The Bahá’í Faith regards the current world confusion and calamitous condition in human affairs as a natural phase in an organic process leading ultimately and irresistibly to the unification of the human race in a single social order whose boundaries are those of the planet. The human race, as a distinct, organic unit, has passed through evolutionary stages analogous to the stages of infancy and childhood in the lives of its individual members, and is now in the culminating period of its turbulent adolescence approaching its long-awaited coming of age.

The Bahá’í writings explain that, while humanity has already passed through the organizational stages of family, tribe, and city-state, the dominant feature of the present age is the passage from a system of autonomous and often antagonistic sovereign nations, to a single world society. Bahá’ís believe that this transition, while ultimately of immense benefit to humanity, will be accompanied by considerable strife and difficulty— as attested by the current widespread levels of environmental degradation that are seen by Bahá’ís as one manifestation of this process. Alluding to this process, Bahá’u’lláh wrote more than a century ago that

The winds of despair are, alas, blowing from every direction, and the strife that divideth and afflicteth the human race is daily increasing. The signs of impending convulsions and chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing order appeareth to be lamentably defective.

Such a perspective is not, however, a cause of despair for Bahá’ís. Rather, Bahá’ís believe that acknowledging this historical perspective is itself an essential prerequisite to humanity’s [Page 30] further collective evolution. It is with confidence that Bahá’ís anticipate the fulfillment of Bahá’u’lláh’s promise that “Soon will the present-day order be rolled up, and a new one spread out in its stead.”

Elaborating on this theme, Shoghi Effendi explains that world unity is

the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation-building has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is moving towards a climax. A world, growing to maturity, must abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships, and establish once for all the machinery that can best incarnate this fundamental principle of its life.

The destructive trends associated with this period of transition toward unity, including environmental degradation, are, therefore, seen by Bahá’ís as cause for action, not resignation or paralysis. Bahá’ís around the world are striving, in accordance with the Bahá’í teachings, to actively address the many problems facing the world today and to rectify the damage that humanity is inflicting upon itself and its world in this transitional period. For the Bahá’í Faith confidently asserts that such problems are not insurmountable—that they represent, rather, the last expressions of an immature stage in a “vast historical process” of social evolution leading ultimately to a social order whose boundaries are those of the planet.

Prescription for a New World Order

THE essential features of the world order of Bahá’u’lláh are summarized by Shoghi Effendi:

The unity of the human race, as envisaged by Bahá’u’lláh, implies the establishment of a world commonwealth in which all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members and the personal freedom and initiative of the individuals that compose them are definitely and completely safeguarded. This commonwealth must . . . consist of a world legislature, whose members will, as the trustees of the whole of mankind, ultimately control the entire resources of all the component nations, and will enact such laws as shall be required to regulate the life, satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples. A world executive, backed by an international Force, will carry out the decisions arrived at, and apply the laws enacted by, this world legislature, and will safeguard the organic unity of the whole commonwealth. A world tribunal will adjudicate and deliver its compulsory and final verdict in all and any disputes that may arise between the various elements constituting this universal system.

Shoghi Effendi explains that the new world order seeks not to subvert “the existing foundations of society,” but rather

to broaden its basis, to remold its institutions in a manner consonant with the needs of an ever-changing world. It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can it undermine essential loyalties. Its purpose is neither to stifle the flame of a sane and intelligent patriotism in men’s hearts, nor to abolish the system of national autonomy so essential if the evils of excessive centralization are to be avoided. It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the diversity of ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of thought and habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world. . . . It repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and disclaims all [Page 31] attempts at uniformity on the other. Its watchword is unity in diversity. . . .

Bahá’ís assert that nothing short of the federation of all the nations and peoples of the earth into this world-embracing commonwealth can ultimately promote the best interests and safeguard the well-being of an emerging global civilization.

Elaborating on the implications of the theme for the global environment, the Universal House of Justice observes that the

many problems of pollution are merely one aspect of the multitude of problems that will be solved when mankind accepts the reconstruction of human society as adumbrated by Bahá’u’lláh.

The Universal House of Justice also states that

Until such time as the nations of the world understand and follow the admonitions of Bahá’u’lláh to whole-heartedly work together in looking after the best interests of all humankind, and unite in the search for ways and means to meet the many environmental problems besetting our planet, . . . little progress will be made towards their solution.

While the reconstruction of human society is derided by many as a utopian vision, the Universal House of Justice has urged the peoples of the world to consider that “such an enterprise is possible, that the necessary constructive forces do exist, that unifying social structures can be erected. . . .” The Universal House of Justice goes on to say that “The experience of the Bahá’í community may be seen as an example” of “enlarging unity.” It is a community of more than five million people drawn from many nations, races, cultures, classes, and creeds and “engaged in a wide range of activities serving the spiritual, social and economic needs of the people of many lands.” The global Bahá’í community is a “single social organism, representative of the diversity of the human family, conducting its affairs through a system of commonly accepted consultative principles, and cherishing equally all the great outpourings of divine guidance in human history. Its existence is yet another proof of the practicality” of Bahá’u’lláh’s “vision of a united world, another evidence that humanity can live as one global society, equal to whatever challenges its coming of age may entail.”

Conclusion

THE TEACHINGS of the Bahá’í Faith, as well as the experience of its followers as an emerging world community, offer a unique model for those who recognize the vital role of religion—and world unity—in human affairs. It is a model that inspires reverence and appreciation for nature; identifies principles upon which a harmonious relationship with the natural world can be founded; makes sense out of the current disorderly state of human affairs; and prescribes fundamental changes in the ordering of affairs in a manner consonant with the needs of the present day. But, above all, it is a model that unites all of these aspects into a single belief system that is a source of purpose, faith, and inspiration —elements that have proven to be potent forces in human change. In its outlook on environmental stewardship, the Bahá’í Faith seeks to address both the human environment and the human heart and spirit. In the words of Shoghi Effendi:

[Page 32]

We cannot segregate the human heart from the environment outside us and say that once one of these is reformed everything will be improved. Man is organic with the world. His inner life moulds the environment and is itself also deeply affected by it. The one acts upon the other and every abiding change in the life of man is the result of these mutual reactions.

[Page 33]

Landscape in Five Dimensions

Fill the hollow sky

With a listless afternoon

Drops of wind escape

Beyond the timbered ridgeline

A circling hawk springs to life

Aromatic mulch

The smell of spruce shadows Earth

The bluebird in flight

I inhale the thriving air

While my clay feet share the soil

A floating leaf spins

On a dry current Quick life

Overcoming dust

Easing across the meadow

A worried gopher scrambles out

The parched grass rattle

Stands mute, dusty, unshaken

Browning like a weed

In slowly ripening patches

Follow knee-deep deer Listen

[Page 34]

Soil
Thirsty
Laps water
The earth’s belly
Is swollen with mud
I pace barefoot, the ground
Oozing between my toes
Through touch I absorb
A trace of soil
My feet cool
The rock
Warm

Red
Clover
Orchard grass
Quaking aspen groves
Canadian thistle
The wind stirs, blends, gives flight
To seed and insect
The smell of hay
Not yet mown
Turning
Ripe

Observe soil and water

Making their exchange

Flow Soak Saturate

A sea of water transpired

From earth to sky, from mountain

To meadow The chemistry Hydro

gen and Oxygen re-formed

Into salt and acid, the physics

Of gravity pure and mysterious

Attracting greater and lesser

The alchemy of valence, osmosis

Hesitating between parching and flood

The magpie

Is witness to constancy

[Page 35]

Empty of all but grass and weeds

The field on second glance yields

A network

The rabbit, the gopher, the bee

A grass snake, the coyote and hawk,

The earth worm, the flowers and trees that

Cup the grass

A cornucopia

Flowering unpressured day into evening

Spring into Summer

The grass harvests

Rippling shadows gathering them in

Dark counterpoint to unshadowed green

The wind disturbs the steady tempo

Of day, holding it ransom against

Night Dust rinses out of the soil

Raindrops hit and miss Is that

What the deer smell?

From a spiders vantage

The horizon is pinched in close by

Long-stemmed blades of grass

The world is small, almost

Knowable

When I stand perspectives

Expand at the speed of sight

The new horizons multiplying

Possible images complicating

The web of knowledge

My sight

Encompasses surrounding mountains

Rushes to fill the sky I am

No longer isolated

At peace with a simple world

I am raising my vision trying to

See with the eyes of a hawk

[Page 36]

Quick
Stormrace
The lightening
Movement of Rain
Across the meadows
Chasing me to refuge
Among the dry blue spruce
Reflecting landscape
Grass gathers rain
The dry spruce
Gather
Me

Whip
Cracking
Thunder blast
Stupendous storm
A gully washer
Rips across the mountains
The earth catches and reserves
What water it can
Shedding all else
While sponging
The sky
Dry

The ears of the golden-mantled

Ground squirrel shift

Chameleon-like

Toward the subtle change in

Harmonics, the pitch of wind

Keening from the sky

Into treetops, rushing to fill

Silent hollows

Swallows kiting and bobbing

Can see clouds before

They shred on the rocky ridge, before They

slam against the hill

And pile fold on fold into

Quilted black giants

Bulling across the sky engulfing

Blue by bit of blue

The sky, the shadow, the day.

The squirrels and birds are first

With knowledge, then the leaves

Catching raindrops

One

at a time

[Page 37]

A percussion concert

Single rainbeats

Snared in the grass and

Treetops

The soft

Roll of irrigation

Water bubbling

Down

a gopher

Hole

and sliding across rocks

The crescendo

Of the creek water

Echoing off

The mountain where the storm began

The deafening racket of rain Drowning

All possible sound

The shattering tympany of

Thunder

A soft xylophone

The raven

Celebrating the storm

Grass is driven to

a pointillist frenzy

Springing up and down

Beneath furious daubs of rain

The wind carries

A flat matte of water

Horizontal

Stinging canvas—dry patches

Of paintbrush

Aspen branches flash Sprinklings of white

Leaf undersides

Then like fat fingers

Coax a rising mist from

Heavy grass

Finches twitch themselves dry like leaves

in a breeze

[Page 38]

The ground squirrel

Shares my storm

Refuge hiding in the branches

I feel as displaced as he

Seems to be

A ground creature

Confined in a cage of branches

The storm flies at us

I collect a fine wind-borne spray

On my face then

look again

The squirrel has fled into

The shape of a bird

Darting into the teeth of

The storm

I gather courage and

Join him

I fly

From my refuge of branches

Freed from my cage

A shifting pulse

The sky moves

Dense black

Boiling itself dry

Then invisible, thick

Air trapped in

Pockets between drops

The exchange of water

Between earth and clouds

Has reached ridiculous proportion

Birds swim through the air nibbling

pockets of sky and

Climb steeply, lured

By blue patches where

The pockets have expanded

Into bubbles

The pulse is suddenly

Still

[Page 39]

Drops
Captured
In grass cups
Invert the world
A green sky A blue lake
Distilled from near the sun
The storm reflected
Inside and out
Has moved on
Earth is
Green

Wet
I am
Part ocean
Part sky I am
A bird migrating
Guided by the warm sun
Fed by the rain I
Drop my roots deep
In soil where
I am
Dry

Footprints A rabbit

Splashing across the wet field

Startled by coyotes

A stellar’s jay is rinsing

In the hollow rock’s puddle

The grass in half tone

Bound by a web of shadow

The scythe of evening

Harvesting a cooling breeze

And a pair of hooting owls

Deer browse the flowers

In mist blue green red and gold

A rainbow blossom

They nibble raindrop prisms

The distilled mountain nectar

A still-life landscape

A tree A leaf A birdsong

The silent echo

I splash a tiny pebble

In the perfectly still pond

—Don Child

Copyright © 1994 by Don Child

[Page 40]

[Page 41]

The Application of Bahá’í
Teachings on Health

BY ALFRED K. NEUMANN, M.D., AND LAURA ANN FERNEA

Copyright © 1994 by Alfred K. Neumann and Laura Ann Fernea.

HEALTH, encompassing mental, spiritual, and physical well-being, is a fundamental aspect of human life. Good health is essential to the optimal functioning of the mind and body. Over the past fifty years tremendous advances have been made in the fields of preventive medicine, public health, and clinical medicine. Humanity now possesses the knowledge, technology, and financial resources to improve greatly the health— and thus the lives—of all humankind. Notwithstanding this, hundreds of millions of people around the world still do not have access to basic health-care services. In the United States this reality has given rise to a heated debate about the future of the nation’s health-care system.

Thus the issue is not that society lacks the technical know-how or money to improve the health of humanity but that it has not yet chosen to apply its technology and resources toward such a goal. Often governments do not give health care or other social services priority in their budgets. For example, in 1990 some countries reduced expenditures for health care, education, and social welfare to balance their budgets. At the same time, other nations spent billions of dollars on the military. In fact, most countries spend a significant portion of their budgets on the military rather than on critical social services such as health care. Moreover, in many countries a high percentage of national income and wealth is concentrated in the hands of a privileged few.

According to the writings of the Bahá’í Faith, the key to the overall improvement of health throughout the world is the development of moral, ethical, and spiritual principles to guide the equitable application of health maintenance and enhancement measures throughout the world.

Some health enhancement measures are already occurring at the macro level. They include public health programs to ensure the availability of pure water and food, environmental health protection, and occupational health and safety. Other macro measures include training health personnel, building and maintaining health facilities, and so on. Almost no government, however, is wealthy enough to provide out of tax revenues even the most basic health services for all of its people.

The Bahá’í Faith approaches the promotion of optimal health both from the macro perspective and from a grass-roots, community-integrated development perspective. A brief summary of some broad principles and an illustrative mini grass-roots development case study will help to clarify the Bahá’í perspective.

Spiritual and Practical Requirements

HOW IS health defined? The Bahá’í writings emphasize that health must be seen from a holistic perspective and that its spiritual and [Page 42] physical aspects cannot be separated but must be treated together. The Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing and legislative body of the Bahá’í Faith, states that “The oneness of mankind, which is at once the operating principle and ultimate goal” of the Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, “implies the achievement of a dynamic coherence between the spiritual and practical requirements of life on earth.” In terms of individual health, the “oneness of mankind” is unity of the spiritual and the physical in the human body. In society, oneness must also be achieved through the implementation of programs aimed at improving both the physical and spiritual health of the community at large. Such a comprehensive definition of health is supported by the World Health Organization, which defines good health as “physical, mental and social well being,” not merely the absence of disease. Health care is no longer concerned solely with the corporeal dimensions of the human body and its diseases.

The importance of health for physical and spiritual well-being cannot be overemphasized. Good health is vital, for without it one cannot attain one’s optimal capacity to work and, therefore, cannot serve humanity optimally. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the Son and appointed successor of Bahá’u’lláh, states, “Looking after one’s health is done with two intentions. Man may take good care of his body for the purpose of satisfying his personal wishes. Or, he may look after his health with the good intention of serving humanity and of living long enough to perform his duty toward mankind. The latter is most commendable.” In another passage ‘Abdu’l-Bahá indicates that expending one’s health in service to humanity “is very acceptable and praiseworthy” and is preferable to squandering one’s health in the pursuit of the satisfaction of sensual desires. Finally, and perhaps most important, the Bahá’í writings explain the relationship of the body to the soul or spirit of the individual:

As this physical frame is the throne of the inner temple, whatever occurs to the former is felt by the latter. In reality that which takes delight in joy or is saddened by pain is the inner temple of the body, not the body itself. Since this physical body is the throne whereon the inner temple is established, God hath ordained that the body be preserved to the extent possible, so that nothing that causeth repugnance may be experienced. The inner temple beholdeth its physical frame, which is its throne. Thus, if the latter is accorded respect, it is as if the former is the recipient. The converse is likewise true.

This is perhaps the most significant statement in the Bahá’í writings about the relationship between the body and the soul and the importance of taking care of one’s body. The metaphor of a throne implies a position of great respect and honor for the soul. Not only is the body the throne of the soul, but the connection between the two is very strong; each has a profound effect on the other. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes that “Between material things and spiritual things there is a connection. The more healthful his body the greater will be the power of the spirit of man; the power of the intellect, the power of the memory, the power of reflection will then be [Page 43] greater.” Hence it is vital that each individual be physically and spiritually healthy.

Individual and Community Health

THE relationship between the physical and the spiritual as the basis for good health is important at both the individual and community levels. For both, prevention of the onset of ill health or disease and treatment and care when they are present is essential. On the individual level, the idea of disease prevention is much more popular than ever before, especially prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease for which no definite cures exist. Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá are explicit in their recommendations for healthy practices in daily life:

◆ Exercise: “Exercise is good when the stomach is empty; it strengthens the muscles.”

◆ Diet: “O People, do not eat except when you are hungry. Do not drink after you have retired to sleep.” “Fruits and grains [will be the foods of the future].”

◆ Hygiene: “clean1iness and sanctity, purity and delicacy exalt humanity and make the contingent beings progress. Even when applied to physical things, delicacy causeth the attainment of spirituality, as it is established in the Holy Scriptures.”

◆ Alcohol: “Alcohol consumeth the mind and causeth man to commit acts of absurdity. . . .”

◆ Smoking: “smoking tobacco . . . is dirty, smelly, offensive—an evil habit, and one the harmfulness of which gradually becometh apparent to all. Every qualified physician hath ruled—and this hath also been proven by tests—that one of the components of tobacco is a deadly poison, and that the smoker is vulnerable to many and various diseases.”

Almost daily the recommendations found in the Bahá’í writings are confirmed on radio and television and in the print media. Although the guidance was given in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is as valid today as it was then. The relationship of diet to disease is becoming increasingly apparent, with evidence clearly linking high-fat and low-fiber diets to higher rates of heart disease and certain types of cancer. Moreover, other recommendations in the Bahá’í writings such as the importance of prayer and meditation (which frequently reduce stress and tension) to strengthen the soul and thereby the body and the terrible effects of drug use on the human body are corroborated by current medical and physiological research.

The Bahá’í writings mention two types of treatment of disease: physical and spiritual. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that “There are two ways of healing sickness, material means and spiritual means. The first is by the treatment of physicians; the second consisteth in prayers offered by the spiritual ones to God and in turning to Him. Both means should be used and practised.” Thus humanity is exhorted to use both material and spiritual means of treatment rather than relying solely on one [Page 44] or the other. “It is incumbent upon everyone,” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes, “to seek medical treatment and to follow the doctor’s instructions, for this is in compliance with the divine ordinance, but, in reality, He Who giveth healing is God.” He also says that individuals should “accept physical remedies inasmuch as these too have come from the mercy and favour of God, Who hath revealed and made manifest medical science so that His servants may profit from this kind of treatment also.”

On the community level, there are many indications of the recognition that steps must be taken to ensure the health of society as a whole. It is a given that a clean water supply is necessary to ensure cleanliness. Increasing attention is being given to programs and strong enforcement of laws against the buying or selling of illicit drugs to reduce their accessibility and use. Clearly, medical professionals should be consulted in times of illness, but this can be done only if such professionals and supporting institutions are available in towns and cities. Again, the Bahá’í writings are explicit in their recommendations about healthy practices and principles that will ensure the health of the community:

◆ Universal Education: Besides the increased self-respect and self-confidence that come from education, effective health and nutrition education—backed by adequate purchasing power—has proven to be very important to maintaining a healthy society. Studies have shown that prenatal health education has a significant impact both on the better overall health of newborns and on the amount of money it takes to maintain their good health. For example, a 1991 study of infants born to cocaine users emphasized this dramatically: “The hospital costs for each cocaine-exposed newborn averaged $7,957 before physicians determined that the newborn was ready to be sent home, compared with an average of $2,757 for infants who had not been exposed to the drug.” A study by the Institute of Medicine shows that every dollar spent on prenatal education for low-income, under-educated women can save $3.38 in the cost of medical care during the first year of their babies’ lives. Thus effective prenatal education can potentially cut medical care costs for newborns by more than two-thirds.

The principle of educating women is supported by the Bahá’í writings, which strongly emphasize its importance. Health education in all areas, from nutrition to the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse, is also supported by the Bahá’í teachings.

◆ Equality of Women and Men: Gender equality is another important principle in the Baha’i writings. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that

if woman be fully educated and granted her rights, she will attain the capacity for wonderful accomplishments and prove herself the equal of man. She is the coadjutor of man, his complement and helpmeet. Both are human; both are endowed with potentialities of intelligence and embody the virtues of humanity. In all human powers and functions they are partners and coequals.

This important principle is gradually being recognized and acknowledged in more and more countries, but encouraging gender equality is not a priority for most governments. Most women do not receive the same educational and economic opportunities as men do, and many are denied equal civil rights as well. The impact of this inequity on the world is powerful and impossible to [Page 45] measure accurately. However, the connection between gender equality and health is becoming increasingly evident. A strong correlation has been found between the level of women’s education and the health of their families. It is clear that, by ensuring equal educational and economic opportunities for women, society can enable women to improve the health of their families and thus their communities. Bahá’u’lláh gave us an inkling of the importance of gender equality when He taught that human success and prosperity will not be fully achieved until the strengths of both women and men are utilized. He said that the world of humanity has two wings—one woman, the other man. Not until both wings are equally strong can the bird fly and soar to great heights.

◆ Abolishing Extremes of Wealth and Poverty: Another inequity that is harmful to society is the disparity between the rich and the poor. This is apparent both among more and less industrialized countries and within countries between high- and low-income groups. In most cases the gap between the rich and the poor is widening. The 1989 edition of World Military and Social Expenditures confirms that “The gap in per capita income between the developed and developing countries is now over twice as large as it was 30 years ago; the gap in public health expenditures per capita is four times as large.” It reports that “Every minute 15 children in the world die for want of essential food and inexpensive vaccines, and every minute the world’s military machine takes another $1,900,000 from the public treasury.”

The wisdom of Bahá’u’lláh’s injunction to obliterate extremes of poverty and wealth becomes apparent. There is no lack of resources to deal with such inequities but rather a lack of willingness to do the right thing. The spiritual and practical principles in the Bahá’í writings offer a valuable guide that will ensure health both for the individual and for the community as a whole.

Social and Economic Development

THE ultimate key to maximizing the health of all humankind is summarized by the Universal House of Justice in an October 1983 letter that expounds the theme of social and economic development, particularly programs targeting the poor. The House of Justice writes that the time has come to make social and economic development a high priority in order to serve humanity and notes that

From the beginning of His stupendous mission, Bahá’u’lláh urged upon the attention of nations the necessity of ordering human affairs in such a way as to bring into being a world unified in all the essential aspects of its life. In unnumbered verses and tablets He repeatedly and variously declared the “progress of the world” and the “development of nations” as being among the ordinances of God for this day.

Although it has not always been practical for Bahá’í institutions to emphasize development activities, “the concept of social and economic development is enshrined” in the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith. Achieving a “dynamic coherence between the spiritual and practical” described by the Universal House of Justice requires spiritual deepening; crosscultural knowledge and sensitivity; technical ability; managerial expertise; teaching ability; and understanding, patience, and love of people.

The Kitui Project: A Case Study. Once one begins to understand the Bahá’í social teachings, the critical issue becomes how to move from theory to practical, successful application. A case study from East Africa briefly [Page 46] illustrates some of the real-life dynamics of the rural, grass-roots, community-based social and economic development that is encouraged in the October 1983 letter from the Universal House of Justice.

The setting of the case study is the Matinyani sublocation in the Kitui District of Kenya. The predominant tribe in the area is the Akamba, a people known for their artistic skills. In 1985 and 1986 the project area was stricken with a severe drought, causing the local population to suffer greatly. Several relief and technical assistance efforts were sponsored by a range of international organizations. In 1989 Bahá’í projects were initiated in the Kitui area, guided by the principles in the October 1983 letter on social and economic development. Among the Bahá’ís active in the Kitui area from 1989 onward were individuals who later became members of REHEMA, a nongovernmental organization (NGO) founded in Kenya in 1991 by three Bahá’í women with technical and financial assistance from the New Era Foundation for International Development, a private, non-profit development group organized under the auspices of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and functioning autonomously. (REHEMA is an acronym for the Swahili phrase Rejesha Heri Maishani, which, roughly translated, means putting hope back into life.)

Funding for the first Kitui project, as it came to be known, came from small grant funds from a number of NGO and bilateral (government) donors, each with its own reporting and evaluation requirements. Thus one lesson learned early in the project was that a reasonable knowledge of management, including project planning and development; of potential donors; and of how to write successful grant applications must exist within a development team if it is to foster a sustainable project.

Since it is difficult for people to listen and learn when they are struggling with problems such as hunger and unemployment, it was decided that the Bahá’í development activities would begin with an income-generating project. The motivation was to ensure that the Kenyans devastated by the drought would remain self-sufficient rather than become increasingly dependent on external assistance.

As a matter of policy, high priority was placed on helping build up the confidence and sense of self-worth of the Matinyani group. First, the Bahá’í community development workers made friends with the local people and initiated a series of task-oriented consultative discussions. Among the themes of the discussions were the hypothetical questions, “If you, through some miracle, had money, what would you do with it? How would you divide it? What would you spend on education of children and of adults, including women? What about food, health care, clothing, and housing?” The Bahá’ís introduced elements of the Bahá’í social teachings and explained how such principles could help individuals and communities.

Second, after months of intermittent discussion, the questions changed to “If suitable technical assistance and financial help could be found to help you start a business, what do you think you would like to do?” In the case of the Matinyani group, they focused on sisal, a plant that grows wild in the area and is often used to make rope. Traditionally, sisal had been made into a durable white fiber that could be dyed and woven into baskets. The market for these popular baskets had been strong for more than a decade. However, competition by cheap, inferior imitations from Asia had hurt the market, and sales of the sisal baskets had tapered off and virtually collapsed around 1990 when they were replaced by the ubiquitous backpack.

The Matinyani group pointed out that they were farmers and weavers. If something that could be woven of sisal would sell, that [Page 47] would suit them the best. The main Bahá’í consulter, facilitator, and external catalyst, Geraldine Robarts, an artist in her own right, consulted with art sellers and friends in the tourist industry in Nairobi. They thought some sort of wall hanging or small carpet depicting local themes, if well done and colorfast, would probably sell well. In late 1989 the villagers decided they were willing to contribute their time to learn and to weave sample pieces for test marketing. The village offered the use of its multipurpose center. Donor support was sought. Suitable grant proposals were written, and budgets were prepared. The village’s consciousness had been raised to such a level that it was agreed that men and women would work together on an equal basis. It was also agreed that there would be open consultation and that any profits would be shared equitably. Small grants were awarded by a number of donor organizations and were used to purchase suitable equipment and to hire an experienced weaving teacher and an art teacher. Business and management instruction was also facilitated.

The test pieces sold quickly and for good prices. A good management structure was established whereby all were essentially piece workers. Production was expanded and has been increasing steadily to the present time. Akamba tapestries have been featured in art galleries and are selling in Africa, Europe, and North America.

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Akamba tapestry handcrafted in rural Kitui, Kenya.

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Evaluating the Kitui Project. The income of the core group of participants in the Kitui project and their extended families has more than quadrupled. Yet, while sustainable income increase is one relatively simple and obvious indicator of progress, experience has shown that additional quantitative and qualitative [Page 48] evaluation criteria are probably more important. How much of the proceeds from the sales of their work accrue to the workers themselves? Simple management training including sales and sales contracts, accounting, banking, and quality control were introduced by the Bahá’í external facilitators so that the village group could control all aspects of the enterprise.

The most difficult aspect of improvement to evaluate is also exceedingly important. It has to do with improvement at both individual and community levels in confidence, sense of well-being, feelings of control over life, empowerment, and hope for the future.

Experience has shown that guidance regarding the wise use of income is very important, lest the money be spent on alcohol; prostitutes; empty-calorie luxury foods such as white bread, white sugar, jam, and canned products; bicycles; or expensive radios. But how should such concepts be conveyed, especially those that affect health? It is instructive to observe that the Kitui weavers and spinners eventually noticed that some of their colleagues were tiring much less quickly, concentrating better, working faster, and making fewer mistakes than others. Discussion revealed significant differences in diet between the more efficient workers and those who tired quickly. The majority of those with better stamina ate breakfast as well as a light midday meal and consumed more protein than those who ate one meal a day in the evening. Through the project these workers had begun earning substantial wages and could afford more and better quality food. Some remembered hearing talks given by Ministry of Health nutritionists; now that they had some money, they had improved the quality of their diets with the added benefit of improving their work as well. Others did not change. Earlier the workers had been unable to heed the nutritional suggestions given to them because they lacked the necessary money. Now that they could heed the suggestions, the benefits of doing so were becoming evident.

Similarly, it was ascertained that the faster, more productive workers also took advantage of the available health-care services, both preventive and curative. One example of this occurred when a weaver was absent to take care of her children who were sick with the measles. Another weaver was grateful that she had immunized her children against measles at the health center. For children to be immunized, services must be available, knowledge of the value of immunization must be present, and—this is a major factor—the people wanting to have their children immunized must have enough money to take time off from their daily work and must have transportation to the health center. Although the actual vaccination may cost little or nothing, the cost of taking time off from work, plus travel expenses, can be prohibitive.

The Kitui spinning and weaving project, by 1994, has helped improve the lives of about four thousand people. Now that the Kitui weavers and spinners are productive, proud, and earning a living, they chat and sing while they work. They help each other. All work is shared equally between both sexes. Participants in the project are teaching spinning and weaving skills to other adults and children. Moreover, the Kitui people are able to consider spiritual matters. They are learning to consult on ways to improve their families’ lives, and they are learning how to reach out to those around them. They are improving their housing. New vermin- and insect-free houses are being built. Using new knowledge and confidence, they are also improving their agricultural practices with natural organic methods, and they have even helped a fellow villager start a plant nursery. Alcohol consumption is down. Relatives sent to major cities to earn money are returning because life in the village is better and because they want to stabilize family relationships [Page 49] and reduce the risk of contracting AIDS, the transmission of which they have learned about through project offices. The community’s health has been further improved through the establishment of a village pharmacy that sells medications and treated mosquito nets and through the training of local traditional birth attendants by Ministry of Health workers. A birthing center is under construction.

A family of sister projects in the area is under development. They include a large solar drying enterprise the main cash source of which is the sale of first-quality dried mangoes, a bakery, dripless candle making, honey production, and sunflower seed oil production. Like the Kitui project, the sister projects are assisted by Bahá’ís with the objective of helping the poor to improve their lives.

Despite advances, the Kitui spinning and weaving project is still dependent on external funding, though at a fraction of former levels, and it still requires external technical help with the special problems of growth and managerial development. If the external assistance were to disappear, it is likely that the enterprise would founder, incomes would fall, nutrition and health would suffer, and the workers would be demoralized.

It is important to ask what is needed to help the participants in the Kitui project and their families achieve independence and sustain the improvements they have made in their health and nutrition. In an expanding, evolving project such as this, is there a continuing role for external facilitators/advisors, and, if so, what should it be? At present, the artisans gather the plants, dye the sisal fiber, and spin and weave it. These are mastered traditional skills. But the participants are also learning design, quality control, bookkeeping, banking, marketing, and pricing. Some workers are beginning to learn how to train and supervise new recruits. These activities require new knowledge and skills.

The main contributions of the external advisors are now primarily managerial functions such as helping the project to keep up with changes in market tastes, marketing, design, supervision, quality control, transport of products to market, promotion, broadening the market, sales, and banking. To protect the gains that have been made, work is under way to establish a basic management training program for participants in this project and for participants in others like it.

Lessons Learned from the Kitui Project. A number of positive lessons have emerged from the Kitui spinning and weaving project. First, there is great potential latent in the relatively uneducated poor. Second, lack of formal education must never be confused with lack of intelligence. Third, what begins as a small personal project involving a handful of people, if successful, becomes a small business with all of the management problems of a small business but with no one trained to cope with them. Fourth, the same dynamics that require large, successful corporations to conduct ongoing market research, to develop new products, and to provide in-service training for survival apply to the Kitui spinning and weaving project. Finally, there seems to be a continuing, evolving role for external technical help but at a declining level if gains are to be sustained.

The sister projects in the Kitui area and other donors, including organizations and individuals, have had similar experiences. While progress is satisfactory, it is slow and requires a great deal of outside technical assistance.

One of the most rewarding features of the [Page 50] Kitui spinning and weaving project is the attendant growth of the Bahá’í Faith and its administrative institutions in the area. Moreover, the consultation about work and family has led to the establishment of five strong and active local spiritual assemblies, the local governing bodies of the Bahá’ís in the area. It is gratifying to see individuals in the project learning to consult and to work together to help each other and their extended families and neighbors. The “dynamic coherence between the spiritual and practical” has become real and alive as Bahá’í principles have been applied, basic living conditions have improved, and physical and spiritual health has begun to bloom and flourish. The Kitui project illustrates how one locality has begun to realize the oneness of humankind and the unity of the human Family. It offers an example of “unity in spirit and in actions,” the true key to success.

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Akamba tapestry depicting a mother, with her two children, drinking from a jug.

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[Page 51]

The Exile Makes a Comeback

Bitter, bitter is the heart denied:

the exile wanders in the forest

The stranger seeks refuge in the hills

The dervish is cast into the desert.

I was the dervish traveling the desert

Sucking water from the barren rocks

Blasted by the searing heat,

But purified and cleansed.

Lazarus-like, I arose

Once dead, now living

Now ascendant, now triumphant

The result of some miracle or quirk

Roll that stone off my heart

And watch my heat plume

As once more

I roar into the clear, clean sky.

—Dale Fowler

Copyright © 1991 by Dale Fowler

[Page 52]

[Page 53]

Animal Welfare and the Study
of Animal Consciousness

BY MARY CARMAN ROSE

Copyright © 1994 by Mary Carman Rose.

INTEREST IN the subjective—and perhaps subconscious—origins of human behavior has always been important in Eastern and Western philosophical and religious thought. Around the world, philosophical and religious views have been profoundly concerned with understanding human consciousness and learning to modify it. However, in the present-day quest for animal rights and animal welfare, an as yet unexamined area of research will have to be opened: the study of animal consciousness.

Examining the feasibility and importance of the acceptance of animal consciousness—that is, the emotions of the animals, their apparent memories of places and persons to be feared or trusted, but not the power of abstract thought or the distinctively human capacity of intelligence—as an area of philosophical inquiry and the importance of such a study for understanding the ethical dimensions of human relations to animals is a beginning step. This examination includes a statement of presuppositions; contemporary obstacles to the acceptance of animal consciousness as an area of philosophical inquiry; philosophical and religious approaches to the study of animal consciousness; quasiscientific studies of animal consciousness; and convictions derived from everyday encounters with animals.

Presuppositions Concerning Animal Consciousness

CERTAIN PRESUPPOSITIONS must be made when approaching the philosophical import of animal consciousness. First, the scientist’s observations of a variety of animals are sufficient grounds for concluding that consciousness is an important component in the lives of animals. Moreover, there are epistemological [Page 54] presuppositions—those that guide investigations—that are necessary to the study of animal consciousness. For example, given the contemporary investigative roles bestowed on personal human “stories,” one may not only draw on experiences with animals, but one has the responsibility to do so and to be as thorough in observations and reporting of them as if one were observing within one of the sciences. Furthermore, one may assume that the investigators’ attitudes toward animals are of central importance in their observations of animals.

Contemporary Obstacles to the Study of Animal Consciousness

ONE OBSTACLE to the philosophical study of animal consciousness derives from several contemporary versions of a Protagorean interpretation of “Man is the measure of all things”—that is, the imposition of a solely human perspective on the object of inquiry. Such human-centered philosophical positions do not do justice to the tragic plight of animals deliberately condemned to abuse, neglect, and suffering, nor do they allow for the possibility that animals are “for themselves” and may be known “in themselves” by other animals and humans. In short, animals live their own lives and enjoy their own characteristics regardless of the opinions human beings have about them.

The scientific world gives preference to conclusions based on measurable data rather than on philosophical and psychological observations. However, scientific inquiry capable of studying animal consciousness has yet to be developed. What attention is given to animal welfare often arises from economic, political, or other utilitarian pressures rather than from an appreciation of animals and a concern for their psychological and physical well-being.

Philosophical and Religious Approaches to Animal Consciousness

A NEED exists at the present time for the philosophical study of animal consciousness, for there are groups, both within and outside the philosophical community, committed to fostering the well-being of animals. Such activities presuppose the reality of animal consciousness; most individuals involved in animal protection assume the validity of animal consciousness and subjective states (states of inwardness such as fear, joy, and anxiety). This assumption, however, usually remains implicit, leaving animal welfare activities vulnerable. Some people are unaware of the high probability that animals experience emotions similar to human dread, anguish, or despair, while others who know of this likelihood are indifferent to it. Such ambivalent attitudes prove that animal welfare activities will benefit from developing and defending the view that compassion for animals’ physical and emotional pain benefits investigators’ spirits and intellect and encourages optimal observation of animals and adequate interpretations of the observations.

Animal Consciousness as an Autonomous Area of Study. In the development of the study of animal consciousness, the foregoing obstacles to such inquiry must be initially set aside. Important here is the distinction between a subordinate [Page 55] and an autonomous area of inquiry.

A subordinate area of inquiry is a secondary subject investigated with the goal of facilitating the understanding of the primary subject being examined. For example, in Thomism and Cartesianism the study of animals is subordinate to a complete systematic view of knowledge and reality from which conclusions concerning animals are derived. An autonomous area of inquiry, on the contrary, is studied on its own and is not under the dominance of any other area. The first step in drawing attention to animal consciousness as a significant area of philosophical inquiry is to grant it autonomous philosophical investigation.

The study of animal consciousness cannot be properly undertaken by applying the conclusions derived from a historical philosophical position based solely on a study of animals. When animal consciousness is interpreted as autonomous, it will not be the examination of physical objects in motion, physiological processes, or observable behavior per se. As an autonomous area of inquiry, animal consciousness will be scrutinized for its distinctive investigative needs, challenges, and pitfalls. The goal of the scrutiny is to formulate an efficient means of inquiry and of assessment of conclusions.

Making the philosophical study of animal consciousness autonomous will certainly be compatible with cooperation with other investigations that also provide modes of the study of animal consciousness as well as concepts, data, and conclusions pertaining to animals. It is hoped that new types of studies as yet undeveloped will eventually contribute to the philosophical study of animal consciousness—for example, the acceptance of “stories” of animals and of relations between humans and animals as sources of data, insights, and suggestions for inquiry. However, the autonomous philosophical study of animal consciousness will not accept such stories as known a priori to possess a particular investigative significance. Rather, it will assess all that is offered to it in respect to potential usefulness to its own commitment to the study of animal consciousness.

Roles of Philosophy in the Study of Animal Consciousness. Present-day philosophers are making contributions toward the study of animal consciousness. For example, one who undertakes this inquiry is likely to discern a contemporary investigative need and an opportunity to expand human interests to be aware of and to value animal consciousness, which is as real and vital to animals as human consciousness is to humans. Given the contemporary [Page 56] burgeoning of ecological and humane considerations, it might be difficult at the present time to offer a persuasive case for the hypothesis that there is no animal consciousness: it is the locus of animals’ enjoyment of, or pain in, living and the source of their guidance in response to needs, such as hunger, thirst, affection, mating, and so on. Those who carefully observe the facial expressions of animals, their voices, and the differences in individual responses to experience find ample evidence that animals are aware of the world, have deep responses to it, and are probably endowed with various modes of perception and discernment some of which are sharper than those of humans and some of which humanity does not possess. Concerning these issues there is as yet little that can be called “knowledge.” The “animal spirit” is largely unknown and, to some extent, mysterious. Philosophical work in this field will require creative investigative imagination and openness to discern what may be implicit in the ways animals appear—for example, their playfulness; their devotion to those whom they trust; the eagerness some of them show for human companionship; and their capacities to pursue their own interests. It is to be expected that philosophers will differ in their observations and interpretations of animals. Yet each philosopher must be willing to learn from other observers’ experiences with animals.

Within philosophical texts the philosopher can find great variations of type and degree of human interest in animal consciousness. Some, such as the logical empiricists and the French philosopher and existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre, reject explicitly the investigation of animal consciousness. Others, including thinkers as diverse as the German philosopher Martin Heidegger and the physicist Charles S. Peirce, raise, but do not explore, the question of the feasibility of studying animal responses to nature. Yet others use their own perspective to provide a basis for illumination of the animal mind but leave it undeveloped (German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and English philosopher Alfred Whitehead, for example). Only a few individuals have provided explicit views pertaining to the subjective states of animals. Philosophy will benefit from illumining the diverse offerings in this field—from accepting the challenge to develop Heidegger’s concept of existence (Dasein) and Peirce’s ontological and theistic realism in respect to animals and from answering philosophical views that are seriously lacking due to their [Page 57] rejection of the possible investigative accessibility of the lives and responses of animals.

The following three types of study of animal consciousness, all of which have implications for animal welfare and animal rights, are also fruitful areas for philosophical study at the present time.

Metaphysical and Religious Perspectives on Animals. Despite twentieth-century controversies respecting the epistemological soundness of religious and metaphysical views, it is important that the philosopher examine the contributions they have made to the study of animal consciousness. Because the study of animal consciousness is autonomous, its interdisciplinary aspect will not be compatible with uncritical acceptance of conclusions concerning animal consciousness derived from any one philosophical or religious view or any combination of such views. Three aspects of this subject are particularly significant at this time.

First, there are instances of inadequate appropriation, or even ignoring, of metaphysical or religious views pertaining to relations between humans and animals. Two examples from the Judeo-Christian tradition illustrate the point. In Genesis 1:26 it is stated that humans have “dominion” over animals. Some interpret this not as a responsibility to foster the rights of animals but rather as an opportunity to control and use animals with no regard for their well-being. In Matthew 10:31 there is the truly remarkable but insufficiently studied teaching of Jesus that no sparrow “will fall to the ground without your Father’s will.”

Second, significant changes in attitudes toward animals have recently taken place or are taking place in some religious traditions. There are new attempts among twentieth-century Western religious thinkers to increase appreciation of animals and awareness of animal consciousness. Thus English author Evelyn Underhill, English novelist J. R. R. Tolkien, and ecumenical author and essayist C. S. Lewis have asked for increased appreciation of and compassion for animals, all of which they see as spiritually and intellectually rewarding to humans. Also, ample evidence of change exists within Theravada [Page 58] Buddhism, the original form of Buddhism, which, by virtue of its “conditioned genesis” view that nature is dependent on the human mind for its apparent existence, has neglected various aspects of the physical world. There is now, however, a well-developed interest in the loci of consciousness in nature, as well as in ecology.

Third, one can find a few instances at the present time of fully developed religious views that teach the reality and importance of animal consciousness. For example, Zen Buddhism teaches compassion for animals, is notable in its stress on the reality of the “interiority”—interior feelings that can be hidden so far as behavior is concerned—and “subjective states” of animals, and is aware of their conscious interest in and response to the world. The Zen view may be seen as initiating an answer to Heidegger’s question as to whether animals have a concept of existence. Zen Buddhism has a sense of urgency in fostering the well-being of all sentient beings qua substantive entities, which, though obviously they need their environment in order to exist, are not properly reduced to their relations to their environment or to man. Certainly, in understanding animals we need both the concepts of relatedness and of substance. Individual animals, the subjective states of which are probably among the loci of consciousness, are some of Aristotle’s primary substances, and that humans have a responsibility to develop and protect the rights of animals is one of our relations to animals.

In the literature of the great world religions one occasionally finds careful instructions for kindness to and wise care of animals. The writings of the Bahá’í Faith, for example, clearly state that it is the responsibility of humanity to care for and protect animals:

Ye must not only have kind and merciful feelings for mankind, but ye should also exercise the utmost kindness towards every living creature. The physical sensibilities and instincts are common to animal and man. Man is, however, negligent of this reality and imagines that sensibility is peculiar to mankind, therefore he practices cruelty to the animal. In reality what [Page 59] difference is there in physical sensations! Sensibility is the same whether you harm man or animal: there is no difference. Nay, rather, cruelty to the animal is more painful because man has a tongue and he sighs, complains and groans when he receives an injury and complains to the government and the government protects him from cruelty; but the poor animal cannot speak, it can neither show its suffering nor is it able to appeal to the government. If it is harmed a thousand times by man it is not able to defend itself in words nor can it seek justice or retaliate. Therefore one must be very considerate towards animals and show greater kindness to them than to man. Educate the children in their infancy in such a way that they may become exceedingly kind and merciful to the animals. If an animal is sick they should endeavor to cure it; if it is hungry, they should feed it; if it is thirsty, they should satisfy its thirst; if it is tired, they should give it rest.

It is also clear in the Bahá’í writings that kindness to animals is a God-given duty given to mankind:

to blessed animals the utmost kindness must be shown, the more the better. Tenderness and loving-kindness are basic principles of God’s heavenly Kingdom. Ye should most carefully bear this matter in mind.

Quasiscientific Studies of Animal Consciousness

WHILE SOME investigators of animal consciousness are well trained and serious about the matter, other investigators possess varying degrees and types of “scientific training,” as well as divergent convictions about what science may become through the study of animal subjectivity, and make systematic observations of animals in such diverse life situations as parenting, mating, seeking food, welcoming friendly overtures from humans, and responding to danger. One thinks of well-publicized studies of lions, bats, dolphins, chimpanzees, and city rats. These observations are at least tentatively accepted as evidence about what may be present in the consciousness of the animals being studied.

[Page 60] The term “science” may be used for such inquiries into animal consciousness because they are grounded in direct observations of animals; the observations are reported to appropriate investigative communities; inductive and speculative hypotheses concerning the content of animal consciousness are made; and at least implicitly the hypotheses are offered for use in work with animals. Yet these inquiries are quasiscientific because they do not use the methods of ordinary science. Thus quasiscientific inquiry is often grounded in unexamined presuppositions concerning the reality of animal consciousness, the importance of consciousness in the lives of animals observed, the ease with which animal consciousness can be investigated, and the adequacy for interpretation of animal behavior of concepts used to name human subjective states.

Quasiscientific inquiry into animal consciousness often seems to be articulated with finality and hence without recognition of the incompleteness of the inquiry. Such recognition is present in the best of science where, ideally, it is clear that scientific inquiry cannot provide final, complete conclusions. The possibility exists that in the study of the subjectivity of animals there is an awareness that much is not and may never be discernible. This fact may lead to diminution of the investigators’ sense of responsibility for animals— that is, to the belief that they need not be concerned with what is not, or perhaps cannot, be known about animals. This view, however, is not a necessity. Rather, humanity’s relations with animals are enhanced by the conviction that it is appropriate to believe that, despite the respect and concern for what one perceives to be the reality of animals’ subjective states, experiences with animals are interfused with mystery. While one cares for them, one also ideally respects their need to be “for themselves” in ways not clearly understood, perhaps never to be understood, and perhaps not necessary to understand.

The examination of the epistemological structure of quasiscientific studies of animal consciousness requires much historical, analytic, and creative work from the philosopher. Thus several twentieth-century views have introduced investigative principles that on a priori grounds have rejected animal consciousness as a legitimate area of inquiry without an initial assessment of the feasibility of developing the autonomy of the study of animal consciousness. Some have discouraged this assessment by virtue of a presupposition that animal consciousness is “existentially a cipher” or is reducible to the study of either animal behavior or to human behavioral responses to animals (for example, the well-known view that if I say “This animal is suffering,” I mean that I am seeing him act in ways that I can specify in linguistic terms used by the investigative community to which I belong).

Also, those with philosophically trained minds that combine creative and artistic imagination with proper investigative caution (but not the irresponsible rejection of opportunities to learn about the responses of animals to their world) will find an intellectual and spiritual challenge and adventure in the [Page 61] study of animals’ “being in the world”—that is, speculation concerning the responses of animals to what they perceive. And the epistemological structures of quasiscientific studies would repay analysis by those who possess spiritual and intellectual readiness for that work. For example, what does a kindly, open approach to animals enable us to discern in their behavior, and how does it influence what they will spontaneously display for us? Many people believe that their attitude toward their fellow humans makes a tremendous difference in the responses that they get from them. Perhaps a significant positive analogy exists between our human relations and human relations to animals.

Convictions Derived from Everyday Encounters with Animals

INDIVIDUALS have everyday encounters with animals—their own or their friends’ pets, working animals, wild animals, homeless animals they try to help—that are the source of many convictions about animals and animal consciousness. These convictions differ from scientific and quasiscientific conclusions concerning animal consciousness in that they arise without deliberate inquiry and are not intended for systematic assessment. Further, they differ from convictions about animal consciousness derived from religious or philosophical positions because they arise directly from experience and are not based on prior beliefs. Yet there are no sharp lines of demarcation among the three sources of beliefs about animal consciousness. Perhaps an individual who studies animals through a quasiscientific approach is moved by his spontaneous concern for animals, which in turn may be derived in part from a religious position. However, a person who accepts either a metaphysical position or a religion that ignores animals and who has not reflected on the quasiscientific study of animals may have a spontaneous interest in animal welfare.

Again, each individual’s convictions concerning animal consciousness derive at least in part from the extent and variety of his or her opportunities to learn about animals and the nature of the influence of other individuals’ attitudes toward animals. However, an important factor in shaping anyone’s convictions about and interest in the reality and importance of animal consciousness is the extent to which that person maintains a nonexploitative, kindly, generous openness toward animals as possessing conscious subjective states that have their quality, intensity, and effects on the animals regardless of indifference to or misapprehension of their real nature.

Not all humans possess the ability and willingness to maintain such an attitude. But many who do possess this attitude have noted that it sometimes develops in persons who at first seemed incapable of it. Moreover, one finds [Page 62] that in proportion to the time given to expressing and reflecting on one’s capacity for appreciating animal consciousness, one grows in the ability to discern some (though certainly not all) of the subjective states of animals. Ample evidence suggests this does happen; very little, if any, evidence indicates that this is not the case.

Conclusion

INDIVIDUALS who possess a kindly interest in animal consciousness bring the importance of the spirituality, as well as of the intellectuality, of the investigator into the study of animal consciousness. For within any investigative community the individual is the ultimate source of courage in sustaining investigative integrity; high standards of clarity regarding goals and means of achieving them; and sincere, self-giving commitment to responsible appropriation of the results of inquiry. Individuals who will not ignore or suppress their personal convictions that derive from the evidence they believe that they possess pertaining to their investigation are a locus of true intellectual savoir faire in their profession and may be the necessary source of creativity that leads into more adequate understanding of the human relations to nature.

Lone Mountain Haiku

Night-eyed eagle       sun

Blinds him not.       Invisible

Lone Mountain dancer.

—Barbara Murray Turner

Copyright © 1994 by Barbara Murray Turner

[Page 63]

[Page 64]

Authors & Artists

THOMAS A. BUCKINGHAM is a cardiologist and an Associate Professor of Internal Medicine at the Centre Hôpitalier Universitaire Vaudois in Switzerland. He was formerly associated with Rush Medical College in Chicago. A founding member of Health for Humanity, Dr. Buckingham is currently assisting the Bahá’í International Community in Geneva as a liaison to the World Health Organization on a variety of activities related to women’s health issues, substance abuse, onchocerciasis, and community health care. He has published more than ten chapters in books and over fifty scientific papers and is on the editorial board of two medical journals.

DON CHILD is a senior technical writer and Director of Publications for the Bahá’ís of the Hawaiian Islands. Raised in Colorado, he has traveled widely in places such as Vietnam, Alaska, England, and Hawaii. He received a Master of Arts degree in creative writing from Antioch University.

LAURA ANN FERNEA, who holds two Masters degrees—one in public health from the University of California at Los Angeles, and one in international development from Texas Tech University —has lived and worked extensively in Africa. At present, though her first priority is caring for her child, she is also active with her husband in the Latino community and works part-time as a free-lance health educator, grant writer, Red Cross instructor, and Spanish translator.

DALE FOWLER is a teacher of gifted and honors English students at Permian High School in Odessa, Texas, where he has sponsored the Permian High School Hunger Project since 1984.

MICHAEL KARLBERG is the co-owner of Rainbow Reforestation, a treeplanting company dedicated to renewing the deforested land in northwestern Ontario, Canada. He holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in environmental studies from the University of California at [Page 65] Santa Cruz and a Bachelor of Education degree from the University of Toronto. Currently he is working toward a Master of Arts in Communication from Simon Fraser University in British Columbia and is interested in the implications of increased access to new print media for grassroots social and environmental organizations.

ALFRED K. NEUMANN is a professor emeritus at the University of California at Los Angeles, School of Public Health, where he has been the director of the Preventive Medicine Residency Program. Dr. Neumann’s interests include preventive medicine; community health program planning, management, and evaluation; and sustainable, integrated grassroots community social and economic development. Most of his numerous publications center around preventive medicine and public health.

MARY CARMAN ROSE, Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at Goucher College in Maryland, holds a Ph.D from Johns Hopkins University. Dr. Rose has published over one hundred articles in journals such as Priests and People, Between the Species, World Order, and The British Journal of Aesthetics. She is interested in religious ecumenism, the development of world philosophy, the philosophical issues of realism versus antirealism, and the philosophical and religious study of animals.

BARBARA MURRAY TURNER is a geologist interested in poetry, paleontology, folk dancing, and silversmithing.

Cover design by John Solarz; cover photograph, Mark Sadan; p. 1, photograph, Mark Sadan; p. 5, photograph, courtesy Hans J. Knospe; p. 6, photograph courtesy Media Services, Wilmette, Ill.; p. 9, photograph, courtesy National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the Hawaiian Islands; p. 18, photograph, courtesy Media Services, Wilmette, Ill.; p. 20, photograph, courtesy Steve Garrigues; p. 32, photograph, courtesy Nat Daniels; pp. 40, 47, 50, photographs of Akamba tapestries, Kitui, Kenya, courtesy Alfred K. Neumann; p. 52, 63, photographs courtesy Steve Garrigues.

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