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[Page i]Religion • Society • Polity • Arts

WORLD ORDER

In this issue...

Intellectual and Spiritual Repression: Denying Higher Education to Iranian Bahá’í Youth Editorial

Democratic Elections without Campaigns? Normative Foundations of National Bahá’í Elections Arash Abizadeh

The Evolution of Bahá’í Elections: Correspondence between Shoghi Effendi and the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, 1927

A Systematic Analysis of the Principles Underlying the Bahá’í Electoral Process

2005 Volume 37, No. 1 [Page ii]WORLD ORDER AIMS TO STIMULATE, INSPIRE, AND SERVE ITS READERS IN THEIR SEARCH TO UNDERSTAND THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CONTEMPORARY LIFE AND CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS AND PHILOSOPHY.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Betty J. Fisher Arash Abizadeh Monireh Kazemzadeh Diane Lotfi Kevin A. Morrison Robert H. Stockman Jim Stokes

CONSULTANT IN POETRY

Herbert Woodward Martin

INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS

World Order is published quarterly by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, 536 Sheridan Road, Wilmette, IL 60091-1811. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the publisher or of the Editorial Board.

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COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

Copyright 2006 by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States; all rights reserved. World Order is protected through trademark registration in the U.S. Patent Office. Printed in the U.S.A. ISSN 0043-8804.

ART CREDITS

Cover design by Ric Doering; cover photograph, copyright 2006 by Cardoni Gianluca; p. 6, Glenford E. Mitchell; pp. 9, 10, 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 24, 31, 35, 38. 40, 42, reproduced by permission of The Bahá’í International Community, http://media.bahai.org; p. 50, Melanie Smith; p. 64, Steve Garrigues. [Page 1]2005 VOLUME 37, NUMBER 1

CONTENTS

2	Intellectual and Spiritual ‎Rerpression Repression‎: Denying Higher Education to Iranian Bahá’í Youth Editorial
4	Interchange: Letters from and to the Editor
7	Democratic Elections without Campaigns? Normative Foundations of National Bahá’í Elections Arash Abizadeh
51	The Evolution of Bahá’í Elections: Correspondence between Shoghi Effendi and the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, 1927
62	Century of Light a poem by Peter E. Murphy
63	Mulberry Tissue a poem by Barbara Darr

[Page 2]

Editorial

Intellectual and Spiritual Repression: Denying Higher Education to Iranian Bahá’í Youth

It seems inconceivable that in the twenty-first century any government, however repressive, would dare to exclude an entire segment of its population from access to higher education. To do so would violate the fundamental principle proclaimed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that “everyone has the right to education” and that “higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.” To exclude that population because of its religious beliefs would be even worse—a form of spiritual repression that is intolerable today.

Yet the present regime in Iran is brazenly violating an essential human right by denying its Bahá’í citizens admission to universities. The continuing persecution of Iran’s Bahá’í community has taken many forms—from denial of employment to executions, from illegitimate confiscation of property to imprisonment, from defamation in the media to the destruction of holy places. To be deprived of education is particularly painful to the Bahá’ís whose sacred writings state that “all mankind should attain knowledge and acquire an education. This is a necessary principle of religious belief and observance, characteristically new in this dispensation.”

The world is increasingly taking note of what is occurring in Iran. Many have protested recently against the treatment of Bahá’ís, notably a group of distinguished French intellectuals including several Nobel laureates in an open letter published on December 16, 2005, in the French newspaper Le Monde. The authors note that “In Iran, Bahá’ís are victims of segregation at every stage of their lives.” The letter summarizes briefly the range of persecutions of Bahá’ís over the last twenty-five years, noting that “the indignation of the international community slowed this repression, but never managed to stop it: the persecution of the Bahá’ís has since become latent.” The authors state that, of all the forms of persecution that continue at present in Iran, “There is one aspect that particularly concerns us as teachers and researchers: they [the Bahá’ís] are denied access to higher education.”

The authors continue: “In Iran, as a matter of fact, one must state that one is Muslim, Jew, Zoroastrian or Christian to have the right to register at a university. Bahá’ís, as a matter of principle, refuse to feign conversion. Thus have they no right to higher education. This pattern has been going on for 25 years, the life of an entire generation. . . .” In solidarity with Bahá’í students in Iran and, in principle, with students the world over, the authors of the letter declare: “We, teachers and researchers in France and elsewhere, refuse to accept this situation.” They state that “we who [Page 3]

EDITORIAL

have had the opportunity to pursue studies which have made us who we are, wish to underline the obvious: access to knowledge is a fundamental human right. It is unfortunate that following its promise to 'make higher education equally accessible to all on the basis of individual capacity, without any discrimination,' including 'religious' discrimination, by signing the UNESCO Convention Against Discrimination in Education, the Iranian government has failed to honour its word."

The Le Monde letter goes on to discuss the attempts made by the Bahá’ís in Iran to offer some higher education to their students but also notes the immense obstacles that such an effort faces:

Moreover, they [the Bahá’ís] have not given up educating their sons and daughters. Since 1987 they have been acting on their own, setting up a tuition-free university run by volunteer teachers in the intimacy of their homes with their own personal computers, libraries and even exams. This virtual university is subject to the harassment of the State, which confiscates equipment, examination papers and even arrests those running it. In spite of this, its diplomas in psychology, computer sciences, accounting, literature, biology, pharmacy, law and dentistry are recognized by certain employers in Iran as well as by certain universities abroad. However, their resources are meager compared to the thousands of youth to be trained each year. Today only one out of ten Bahá’í high school graduates can benefit from this facility: only the most self-sufficient and gifted are trained in these make-shift universities. The rest fill the ranks of a sacrificed generation.

The letter concludes with a strong statement of principle and a call for change:

Every human being has the right to access knowledge, whatever his or her origins may be. We declare our solidarity with these young people who are thirsty for knowledge. We ask the Iranian government to welcome into the country's universities all youth, without exception, who have successfully passed the entrance examination, so that cultural segregation may cease at last.

The statement by the French teachers and researchers in Le Monde reminds us that the world is moving forward on its long and anguished journey that, while painfully slow, is ultimately destined to take it from the mere recognition of the "principles of survival" to the development of means and the will to implement such principles. It is a noble step in the building of a world that no longer appalls with its darkness, its failures, its missed opportunities. This open letter is a powerful beam of light that should inspire everyone who reads it because it ultimately speaks of a new and better world. [Page 4]

Letters from and to the Editor

It is rare that World Order devotes virtually an entire issue to a single theme. In this case, Arash Abizadeh's essay "Democratic Elections without Campaigns? Normative Foundations of National Bahá’í Elections" struck us as being so timely that we decided to share it with our readers as a single work with extensive footnotes—instead of serializing it in two or three issues. As a result, this issue consists of Abizadeh's essay and a collection of supporting (and annotated) historical documents—four 1927 letters from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada to Shoghi Effendi and Shoghi Effendi's clear and reasoned response.

Abizadeh notes in the opening paragraph of "Democratic Elections without Campaigns?" that today democracy is virtually synonymous with "multiparty elections in which each party's candidates compete freely for votes." The Bahá’í Faith's system of governance, in contrast, involves elections in which each voter has the right—unfettered by nominations, campaigning, and discussion of names—to vote for anyone he or she feels is the best qualified individual, based on the person's character and the characteristics of the body to which the person is being elected. He goes on to say that "Bahá’í elections are premised on a complete separation of two functions that in traditional electoral campaigns are fused together: resolving conflicts over interests and values (that is, determining policy) and selecting representatives (that is, determining personnel)."

To the study of Bahá’í elections, Abizadeh brings insights from political theory and philosophy, principles from Bahá’í theology, and critical analysis of episodes in Bahá’í history. Political philosophy provides notions such as the instrumental or noninstrumental value of principles and norms, which helps to evaluate the features of the Bahá’í electoral system both based on their outcome (for example, electing representatives of integrity) and based on their inherent value (for example, electing representatives in a way that is not unethical, unfair, or humiliating).

Bahá’í theology provides principles behind the electoral process, particularly a conception of human beings as free, equal, and noble. Freedom and equality, Abizadeh observes, are "rather standard fare in liberal egalitarian political philosophy," yet nobility is a little-considered or examined principle in political science. Nobility assumes the potential of human beings to realize great spiritual virtues, respect for which demands social and political institutions consistent with this potential. Consequently, it leads to a different conception of the nature and purpose of elections and of the bodies that the elections create.

An analysis of Bahá’í history illustrates the choices that were made as elections became a systematic part of Bahá’í culture. Abizadeh reviews prob- [Page 5]

INTERCHANGE

lems that arose in American Bahá’í elections in the late 1920s and how Shoghi Effendi, head of the Faith at the time, in his letters balanced various competing electoral principles. The result is an election of members of National Spiritual Assemblies where each elector, in complete freedom, votes for anyone for whom he or she is moved to vote, and a mere plurality of votes is sufficient for election. (However, an election of officers by the nine members of the National Spiritual Assembly requires a majority of the nine votes).

Abizadeh also explores two criteria that Bahá’í voters should consider in making their selections: the qualities of character that those elected should possess and the diversity of the membership of the body formed by the election in such areas as being representative of the "choicest and most varied and capable elements" of the Bahá’í community, the presence of minorities, and the presence of youth. He examines the issue of term limits one that has come up repeatedly in Bahá’í history—and the reasons it has been rejected as an electoral norm.

The significance of "Democratic Elections without Campaigns?" lies in the fact that it is, we believe, the first attempt at a systematic analysis of the principles that underlie the Bahá’í electoral process. It clarifies the theoretical framework of that process and its historical evolution. Students of the Bahá’í Faith and its emerging administrative order as well as all those interested in the application of spiritual principles to the practice of governance of a community will appreciate the rigorous comparison and contrast between the Bahá’í and prevailing liberal democratic systems of election.

Correspondence about national Bahá’í elections between the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada and a reply from Shoghi Effendi provide additional background for Abizadeh's article. The letters from the National Spiritual Assembly, penned when many features of the current electoral system were being debated and took shape, offer a window into the way in which the issues arose, how they were debated, and the frank, analytical, and principled tone in which the issues were communicated to Shoghi Effendi. It is our hope that in the future we will be able to provide students of Shoghi Effendi's works additional access to the secondary material that sheds light on the context of his writings.

Our issue on elections appears some months after an election in Iran brought a new government into power, one that has intensified the pressure on Iran's three hundred thousand Bahá’ís. The increase in persecution of the Bahá’ís has stimulated a response by the public in the areas of the world that are more free. Our editorial highlights one of the abuses of the human rights of Iran's Bahá’ís—the consistent refusal to allow Bahá’í youth to attend Iranian universities, despite their religion's emphasis on education and the consequent high qualifications of Bahá’í high school students—and a statement by French academics published in Le Monde, including several Nobel laureates, condemning this effort at intellectual and spiritual genocide. It is our hope that the defense of human rights around the world will, indeed, lead to a new day of freedom for the Bahá’ís of Iran.

[Page 7]

Normative Foundations of National Bahá’í Elections

We live not only in an age of democracy but in an age of democratic elections. Even today's most authoritarian and repressive regimes feel compelled to treat their populations—and the world—to the spectacle of elections. We also live in an age in which the twentieth century's deep disagreements between liberal democrats and communists about the very meaning of democratic elections seem to have been laid to rest. Today it is widely assumed that elections, to count as properly democratic, must be multiparty elections in which each party's candidates compete freely for votes. Liberal democrats, it seems, have won the last word on what counts as a properly democratic election.

This is not to say, however, that equating democratic elections with multiparty competition is beyond criticism. Many critics bemoan the apparent shortcomings of multiparty democratic electoral politics. That such elections yield corrupt and morally bankrupt leaders; that they are meaningless without certain social or economic rights and conditions; that they fail to provide the electorate with any real political say or choice; that they are captured by powerful interest groups; or that modern electoral campaigns are too easily bought by money—these are all common worries. What is less common are viable alternatives to the competitive multiparty model of democratic elections.

Copyright © 2006 by Arash Abizadeh. I am grateful to Betty J. Fisher, Pablo Gilabert, Nika Khanjani, Andrenea King, Stuart Soroka, an anonymous referee, and the members of the World Order Editorial Board for their valuable comments on an earlier draft.

ARASH ABIZADEH is an assistant professor at McGill University in Montreal, where he teaches political theory and the history of political philosophy. He received his M.Phil. from Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar in 1994 and his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 2001. He has published in The Journal of Political Philosophy, Political Theory, Review of Metaphysics, American Political Science Review, and Nations and Nationalism. [Page 8]ARASH ABIZADEH

The Bahá’í community claims to practice such an alternative.¹ Because there are no clergy in the Bahá’í Faith, Bahá’í communities are governed by regularly elected representative institutions at local, regional (in some areas), national, and international levels. For most students of democratic politics, the most surprising feature of Bahá’í elections is that they are conducted without nominations, competitive campaigns, voting coalitions, or parties. Indeed, Bahá’í elections are governed by formal institutional rules and informal norms that specifically prohibit such familiar features of the political landscape. The question is why Bahá’í elections are governed by these rules and norms. The answer lies in the distinctive values that are the foundation for the rules and norms. This study seeks to explain the distinct ethical, spiritual, and pragmatic values according to which national Bahá’í electoral rules and norms are justified—to lay bare, in other words, the philosophical foundations of national Bahá’í elections.

My thesis is twofold. First, the three core values on which Bahá’í institutions are based are respect for the inherent dignity of each person, the unity and solidarity of persons collectively, and the inherent justice and fairness of the institutions. These three distinct values operate at individual, interpersonal, and institutional levels, but they are conceptually connected to one another. Second, the instrumental value of Bahá’í electoral institutions lies in how well they perform the following four functions: selecting the most desirable representatives; legitimating Bahá’í administrative institutions; fostering virtues among individual participants; and fostering unity and solidarity in the community as a whole. These may be called the selection, legitimation, education, and integration functions of elections.

A study of the philosophical basis of national Bahá’í elections will be of interest to at least two audiences: students of democratic elections and students of the Bahá’í community and Bahá’í thought. Of particular interest to students of democratic elections is the conception of human dignity on which Bahá’í elections are based.

1. For the suggestion that what is distinct about the Bahá’í system of governance is its electoral system, see a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to the National Spiritual Assembly (hereafter NSA) of the Bahá’ís of Germany and Austria, February 4, 1935, in Shoghi Effendi, The Light of Divine Guidance: The Messages from the Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith to the Bahá’ís of Germany and Austria, vol. 1 (Hofheim-Langenhain: Bahá’í-Verlag, [1982]) 67-70. See also "Bahá’ís Hold Unique Form of Democratic Elections," Bahá’í World News Service May 18, 2005, http://news.bahai.org/story.cfm?storyid-372; "Perspective: Some Thoughts on Elections." One Country 12.4 (Jan.-Mar.) 2001, http://www.onecountry.org/e124/e12402as Perspective thoughts on elections.htm; and John Huddleston, "A Just System of Government: The Third Dimension to World Peace," in The Bahá’í Faith and Marxism, ed. Association for Bahá’í Studies (Ottawa: Bahá’í Studies Publications, 1987), 35-41.

2. The Universal House of Justice (letter to NSAs, May 30, 1997) legislated the formation of Regional Councils only with its "permission and only in countries where conditions make this step necessary." [Page 9]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Switzerland, 2003. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Namibia, 1981. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

This conception refers not only to the freedom and equality of the person-which is rather standard fare in liberal democratic political philosophy-but also the nobility of the person. Emphasis on the nobility of the person focuses the Bahá’í model of democratic elections on a spiritual dimension largely absent from prevailing models. This emphasis, in turn, explains many of the distinct rules and norms of Bahá’í elections and potentially offers students of democratic elections fresh insights for democratic political theory more generally. Students of the Bahá’í community and thought will be interested in the study because it offers a systematic analysis of the values on which Bahá’í elections are based. To say, as Bahá’ís often do, that Bahá’í elections are fundamentally spiritual in nature is not to say that they constitute a magical process that cannot-or should not be analyzed rationally. It is, rather, to say that these elections embody a set of fundamental spiritual and ethical values that provide the core that is supposed to animate the Bahá’í model and be embodied in its rules and norms.³ The values are also what lend Bahá’í elections their distinctive character.

The core values on which Bahá’í elections are based find their ultimate textual source in the writings of Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh’s successor and leader of the Bahá’í community after Bahá’u’lláh’s passing. Their writings provide the primary and most abstract expression of the core values animating Bahá’í elections. But what those values mean in the context of elections requires much interpretive work. The writings of Shoghi Effendi provide the most detailed interpretation and application of these values in the electoral

3. Shoghi Effendi refers to the "spirit" of which the Bahá’í community's administrative institutions are "the channel, the instrument, the embodiment" (Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís throughout the West, March 21, 1930, in The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh: Selected Letters, new ed. [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1991] 18). See also a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of Germany and Austria, February 4, 1935, in Light of Divine Guidance vol. 1, 67, which refers to "the spirit which should animate and direct all elections held by the Bahá’ís." [Page 10]ARASH ABIZADEH Eight of the nine members of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Russia, 2005. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá'í International Community. process. Shoghi Effendi served as the Guardian and leader of the Bahá'í world community (1921-57) during the period of Bahá'í history in which many national Bahá'í administrative institutions were developed, before the establishment and election in 1963 of the first Universal House of Justice, the international governing body of the Bahá'í community. Though Shoghi Effendi's writings have no formal legislative authority, they do have authoritative status in the Bahá'í community as interpretations of the writings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Thus a secondary feature of this study of the normative foundations of national Bahá'í elections is that it concretely illustrates the relationship, in Bahá'í thought, between the writings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá and those of Shoghi Effendi: Whereas the former tend to provide an abstract statement of core values, the latter interpret and apply these values to particular contexts. 1. The Legal Basis of Bahá'í Institutions The Bahá'í community is governed by four levels of elected institutions: Local Spiritual Assemblies, Regional Councils (in some countries), National Spiritual Assemblies (hereafter NSA), and the Universal House of Justice. All are elected annually, except the Universal House of Justice, which is elected every five years. 4. See Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá'ís throughout the West, February 8, 1934, in World Order of Bahá'u'lláh 147-52. 5. Thus I assume that Bahá'í moral and political philosophy, as articulated in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi, forms a rationally coherent whole. Hence, when one draws out the implications of the core values found in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá in order to understand better their implications for the Bahá'í electoral process, one ought to do so in light of Shoghi Effendi's interpretation and application of those values to the electoral context. This is similar to the principle of legal interpretation that legal theorist Ronald Dworkin calls the assumption of "integrity" (Law) Empire [Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1986]). 10 World Order, 2005, Vol. 37, No. 1 [Page 11]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

The legal bases for the constitutional organization of the Bahá’í community are the writings of Bahá’u’lláh, the writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and the legislative enactments of the elected institutions of the Bahá’í community, the Universal House of Justice in particular. While Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá together provided the legal basis for elected local, national, and international governing bodies," most of the constitutional details of Bahá’í structures of governance were left open-particularly in the case of electoral processes-and have had to be worked out subsequently by the Bahá’í community itself. As Shoghi Effendi wrote to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in 1927,

in view of the fact that definite and detailed regulations defining the manner and character of Bahá’í elections have neither been expressly revealed by Bahá’u’lláh nor laid down in the Will and Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, it devolves upon the members of the Universal House of Justice to formulate and apply such system of laws as would be in conformity with the essentials and requisites expressly provided by the Author and Interpreter of the conduct of Bahá’í administration.

Hence, while the writings of Shoghi Effendi have tremendous normative purchase on Bahá’í practice, they carry no legislative authority. As a result, the legal status of any constitutional arrangement or institutional rule that he helped institute, and that was not specifically provided for by Bahá’u’lláh or ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, remained provisional and dependent on future legislative enactment by the elected institutions of the Bahá’í community."

6. On the sources of Bahá’í law, see Udo Schaefer, "Introduction to Bahá’í Law: Doctrinal Foundations, Principles and Structures," Journal of Law and Religion 18.2 (2002-2003): 307–73.

7. Shoghi Effendi (letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, February 27, 1929, in World Order of Bahá’u’lláh 3-5) specifically points to Bahá’u’lláh’s Kitáb-i-Aqdas and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Will and Testament as the primary legal basis for the existence of these Bahá’í institutions. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Bahá’u’lláh’s "Most Holy Book," specifies "the basic laws and ordinances" for governing Bahá’í society (Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, new ed. [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974, 1999 printing] 139, 213). Shoghi Effendi says that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Will and Testament "confirms, supplements, and correlates" the provisions of Bahá’u’lláh’s Kitáb-i-Aqdas and is the "Charter for a future world civilization" that called into being, outlined the future of, and set in motion the processes of the Bahá’í administrative order (Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís in the West, March 21, 1930, in World Order of Bahá’u’lláh 19, and Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 328).

8. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís the United States and Canada, May 27, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration: Selected Messages 1922-1932, 1974 ed. (Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974, 1988 printing) 135-36.

9. This is why Shoghi Effendi would always recommend constitutional arrangements but ultimately leave it to the elected institutions, such as the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, to enact any such arrangements. On the provisional nature of the constitutional arrangements made by the Bahá’í community before the establishment of the Universal House of Justice in 1963, see Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís of America, Great Britain, Germany, France, Switzerland, Italy, Japan, and Australasia, March 12, 1923, in Bahá’í Administration 41: "when this Supreme Body [the Universal House of Justice] will have been properly established, it will have to consider afresh the whole situation, [Page 12]Most of the institutional rules and informal norms that currently govern NSA elections were worked out during the 1920s and 1930s, before the establishment of the Universal House of Justice, under the leadership of Shoghi Effendi in conjunction with the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada." These rules for the election of each country's NSA are now formalized in the By-Laws of each NSA within the context of the Constitution of the Universal House of Justice."

2. The Institutional Rules and Informal Norms of National Bahá’í Elections

Annual elections of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Canada are typical of NSA elections worldwide. 12 They involve a two-step process. First, all adults (currently defined as twenty-one years and older¹³) who are members in good standing of the Canadian Bahá’í community elect 171 delegates to the annual National Convention convened to elect the members of the NSA (Canadian NSA By-Laws art. 13). Delegates are elected by plurality vote (Canadian NSA By-Laws art. 13, $10.) in predominantly single-member electoral units drawn in proportion to the number of adult resident Bahá’ís who make up that unit's set of voters. 15 The and lay down the principle which shall direct, so long as it deems advisable, the affairs of the Cause." See also Shoghi Effendi's letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada (May 27, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 136), which recommends that plurality rule and the ban on nominations be "provisionally adopted"-provisionally, that is, until the issue is legislated upon by the Universal House of Justice (the letter is reprinted on pages 58-60).

10. Loni Bramson-Lerche has explored this formative history in "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá’í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936," in Studies in Bábí and Bahá’í History: Volume One, ed. Moojan Momen (Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1982) 255-300. Until 1948 the United States and Canada shared a single NSA. For the history of the development of Bahá’í administrative institutions worldwide, see Peter Smith, The Babi and Bahá’í Religions: From Messianic Shi'ism to a World Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987).

11. For the Declaration of Trust and By-Laws of the National Spiritual Assembly adopted by the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in 1927, see The Bahá’í World, vol. 2: 1926-28 (New York; Bahá’í Publishing Committee, 1928) 90-97. For a model Declaration of Trust and NSA By-Laws now being used, see "A Model Declaration of Trust and By-Laws for a National Spiritual Assembly," in The Bahá’í World: An International Record, vol. 15: 1968-73, comp. The Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1976) 653-60; and The Universal House of Justice, The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1972).

12. I focus on Canadian elections solely for ease of exposition. The By-Laws of the Canadian NSA are contained in Bahá’í Assemblies: Incorporation and By-Laws (Canada) (Canada: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Canada, 1978)-hereafter Canadian By-Laws. All references to the By-Laws are by article and section rather than page numbers. The numbers of the articles in the By-Laws of the NSA of Canada differ from those in "Model Declaration of Trust and By-Laws for a National Spiritual Assembly," in Bahá’í World, vol. 15: 655-60.

13. See Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the Guardian, comp. Gertrude Garrida (New Delhi: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1973) no. 222; and The Universal House of Justice, Constitution of the Universal House of Justice 8, By-Laws art. 1, §1.

14. Art. 8 in "Model Declaration," in Bahá’í World, vol. 15: 95-97.

15. A single-member unit is one in which the entire unit elects only one delegate. However, some units can be multimember. For further details on this stage of the process, see Universal House of [Page 13]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Iraq, 2004. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

set of persons eligible to be elected as a delegate comprises all the voters in the electoral unit.

Second, the members of the NSA are then elected by the plurality vote of the 171 delegates during the annual National Convention (Canadian NSA By-Laws art. 13, §10). (According to plurality-rule voting, those who receive the greatest number of votes, no matter how small the number, are elected—that is, a majority is not required.) The number of seats on the NSA is nine; the number of votes each delegate may cast is equal to the number of seats (nine); and each delegate must split his or her vote between nine different candidates. The set of candidates includes all adult members in good standing of the Canadian Bahá’í community." Those nine candidates who receive the greatest number of (unspoiled) votes are elected to the NSA. In the case of ties, additional votes are taken on the persons tied until nine persons have been elected (Canadian NSA By-Laws art. 13, $10). However, the Universal House of Justice has also dictated that "where it is obvious that one of the persons involved [in a tie] represents a minority," such as an ethnic or cultural

Justice, letter to all NSAs, July 21, 1985, and letter to the NSA of France, June 3, 1986, in Lights of Guidance: A Bahá’í Reference File, comp. Helen Hornby, 6th ed. (New Delhi: Bahá’í Publishing Trust. 1999) nos. 53, 54.

16. Art. 8, $10, in "Model Declaration," in Bahá’í World, vol. 15: 659. Cf. The Universal House of Justice, Constitution of the Universal House of Justice 14, By-Laws art. 6, §1.

17. Except members of the Continental Board of Counselors, who are members of a nonelected, advisory branch of Bahá’í administration.

18. Art. 8, $10 in "Model Declaration," in Bahá’í World, vol. 15: 659. Cf. The Universal House of Justice, Constitution of the Universal House of Justice 14, By-Laws art. 6, §3. [Page 14]minority, "that person should be accorded the priority without question. Where there is doubt further balloting" should be undertaken."

Bahá’í elections are also characterized by an informal norm that no reference be made to personalities before election. This norm corresponds to the formal institutional rules that require voting to be done by secret ballot and that ban electioneering, party-formation, and nominations. A second norm relevant for elections is the NSA's year-round duty of institutional transparency. A third is each individual's year-round duty to take part actively in the election process and in day-to-day community affairs (for further discussion of the second and third norms, see section 4.1 on pages 34-43).

The question is how the Bahá’í rules and norms are to be justified and evaluated. The answer depends on which values these rules and norms are meant to serve. Plato tells us in his Republic that there are some goods that we value because of their consequences or outcomes, while there are some goods that we value for their own sake, independent of their consequences. And, of course, some goods we value both for the sake of their consequences and for their own sake. Consider the value of a car. A car is, obviously, a means or instrument for realizing some outcome or goal—getting from Montreal to Ottawa, for example. If a car is a good means or instrument for achieving some valuable outcome, the car is instrumentally valuable. But consider a person who values his car not only as a means of transport but also for inherent features of the car itself. The shiny red color of the car may serve no useful transportation purpose, but the car's owner may value the shiny red car for its own sake.

19. The Universal House of Justice, letter to the NSA of the United States, January 25, 1967, in Lights of Guidance no. 83. Although the Universal House of Justice cites Shoghi Effendi's recommendation as the basis for its ruling that ties be broken in favor of minorities, it would seem that its ruling constitutes an act of legislation. (If so, it would need to be added to the brief list of legislative acts by the House of Justice compiled by Udo Schaefer in "Infallible Institutions?" Reason & Revelation: New Directions in Bahá’í Thought, ed. Seena Fazel and John Danesh, Studies in Bábí and Bahá’í Religions, volume 13 [Los Angeles, CA: Kalimát P, 2002] 15). This is because, as noted in section 1 of this article, Shoghi Effendi did not have the authority to legislate, and determining rules for elections are a legislative-constitutional matter (which, according to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá's Will and Testament and Shoghi Effendi himself, falls under the jurisdiction of the Universal House of Justice). The interpretation that this ruling constitutes an act of legislation, however, raises the problem that it would seem to be abrogated by the Constitution of the Universal House of Justice, which was adopted subsequently in 1972, and which, on page 14 of its By-Laws (art. 6, §3) makes no reference to this minority tie-breaking rule. But it is clear from post-1972 communications that the House of Justice does not consider the minority tie-breaking rule abrogated by its Constitution and that the rule is still in force in Bahá’í elections. A March 5, 1986, letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to the NSA of the United Kingdom, for example, reiterates the rule and clarifies that "the definition of a minority in any locality is in the discretion of the National Spiritual Assembly" (in Lights of Guidance no. 84). 20. See The Universal House of Justice, Constitution of the Universal House of Justice 14, By-Laws art. 6. 21. Plato, Republic 357b. [Page 15]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Samoa, undated. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

not as an instrument, but as noninstrumentally valuable. Indeed, for the collector who simply keeps his cars locked up in a garage year-round without using them, the noninstrumental value may be the car's only value.

Similarly, outcomes are not the only measure of electoral institutions' value. Inherent features of the electoral process are also important for their own sake, independent of the kind of outcomes to which the process leads. Even if the best representatives could be elected by a totally unfair process that required lying and humiliating participants, there would be something inherently wrong with the process itself. Thus one way to justify and evaluate electoral rules and norms is according to features of the electoral process that are valuable for their own sake.

But elections are also, of course, instruments for realizing certain outcomes—such as choosing qualified persons as one's representatives. Hence the second way to justify and evaluate electoral rules and norms is according to the kind of outcomes to which they typically lead. Consider, for example, a rule that voting be carried out by open (rather than secret) ballot. If such a rule typically leads to criminals being elected (because they can effectively threaten or bribe everyone for votes), the open-ballot rule would be a poor instrument for securing good outcomes. Such a rule would fail to have instrumental value.

Therefore, the formal institutional rules and informal norms of Bahá’í elections can be justified and evaluated in two ways: according to their noninstrumental value and according to their instrumental value. The noninstrumental value of Bahá’í elections is determined by features of the electoral process that are valuable for their own sake. Their instrumental value is determined by the goodness or badness of the outcomes to which they typically lead.²²

22. For contemporary discussions of the distinction between instrumental and noninstrumental value, see Christine M. Korsgaard, Creating the Kingdom of Ends (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996), chapter 9, and Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom (Oxford: Clarendon P, 1986) 177-78, 200-1. [Page 16]

3. The Noninstrumental Value of Bahá’í Electoral Rules and Norms

Bahá’í institutions are based on a conception of each person as free, equal, and noble, qualities that in combination we might call the inherent dignity of each human being. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá relates the inherent freedom of each person directly to the dignity of each person's conscience, which is "sacred" and the freedom of which commands respect." The dignity of each human being, in turn, corresponds to the fundamental spiritual and moral equality of each person as a source of normative value.25

The emphasis on a conception of the person as fundamentally free and equal has become rather standard fare in liberal egalitarian political philosophy." What is important and distinctive about the conception of the person on which Bahá’í institutions are based, however, is the third element of the human being's inherent dignity: the nobility of each person." Bahá’u’lláh describes this nobility in terms

23. We find poetic expression of this inherent dignity in Bahá’u’lláh's Hidden Words, a collection of ethical and mystical aphorisms written in the voice of God, in which the human being is portrayed as having been created in God's image: "O Son of Man! Veiled in My immemorial being and in the ancient eternity of My essence, I knew My love for thee; therefore I created thee, have engraved on thee Mine image and revealed to thee My beauty" (Bahá’u’lláh, The Hidden Words, trans. Shoghi Effendi [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2003, 2006 printing] Arabic 3). And again: "Thou art my Lamp and My light is in thee" (Arabic 11). And yet again: "within thee have I placed the essence of My light" (Arabic 12).

24. "[W]hen they [the British in Europe] removed these differences, persecution, and bigorries out of their midst, and proclaimed the equal rights of all subjects and the liberty of men's consciences, the lights of glory and power arose.... the conscience of man is sacred and to be respected" (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, A Traveler's Narrative Written to Illustrate the Episode of the Báb, trans. Edward G. Browne, new and corrected ed. [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980] 91 [emphasis added]). On the importance of freedom in Bahá’í thought, see, for example, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks Delivered by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912, comp. Howard MacNutt, 2d ed. (Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1982, 1995 printing) 36, 52, 104, 197, 390.

25. In a Hidden Word (Arabic 68) Bahá’u’lláh, once again, states the matter in poetic terms: "Know ye not why We created you all from the same dust? That no one should exalt himself over the other. Ponder at all times in your hearts how ye were created." On the fundamental spiritual and moral equality of all human beings, see also Women: Extracts from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice (Thornhill, ON: Bahá’í Canada Publications, 1986). These extracts also shed light on the link between spiritual or moral equality and how each person ought to be treated by other persons and political institutions. Note also ‘Abdu’l-Bahá's reference to the "equal rights of all" in the passage quoted in footnote 24. See also ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (from notes of Edna McKinney from a talk ‘Abdu’l-Bahá gave on June 9, 1912, at a Baptist Temple in Philadelphia), Promulgation of Universal Peace 182: "Bahá’u’lláh taught that an equal standard of human rights must be recognized and adopted. In the estimation of God all men are equal; there is no distinction or preferment for any soul in the dominion of His justice and equity." Shoghi Effendi quotes the final sentence of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá's statement in The Advent of Divine Justice, 1st pocket-size ed. (Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990, 2003 printing) 37.

26. See, in particular, John Rawls, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, ed. Erin Kelly (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2001).

27. "Noble [Arabic, aziz] I made thee.... Turn thy sight unto thyself, that thou mayest find Me standing within thee, mighty, powerful and self-subsisting" (Bahá’u’lláh, Hidden Words Arabic 13). [Page 17]of the inherent capacity of each person for spiritual perfection. This conception of the person as fundamentally and inherently noble rejects the view of human beings as inherently sinful, but by tying human beings’ inherent nobility to their potentiality, Bahá’u’lláh advances a conception of nobility compatible with the possibility of failure to realize that potential (and, hence, of great wrongdoing). "Noble I made thee," the Hidden Words declare, but immediately ask, "wherewith dost thou abase thyself?" The same point is made when Bahá’u’lláh describes human beings’ noble station in terms of the "gems" that lie within them:

Man is the supreme Talisman. Lack of a proper education hath, however, deprived him of that which he doth inherently possess.... The Great Being saith: Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom."

Nobility, in other words, is a perfectionist value. It assumes a conception of the person as having certain ends the realization of which constitutes human perfection. Even so, nobility is not simply valuable as a means for realizing such ends. The potentiality to which nobility refers is a spiritual status commanding respect as such, independent of whether the potential is (fully) realized.

One of the ends of nobility is the recognition, in both one’s attitudes and deeds, of the fundamental moral and spiritual unity of all human beings. This unity is the second core value that Bahá’í electoral institutions seek to express or embody. It is a value premised on relations of solidarity among persons-relations in which human beings are disposed to respect the inherent dignity of each person and to "give each others’ interests some noninstrumental weight in their practical reasoning."32

The value of unity (and the solidarity it implies) is expressed throughout Bahá’u’lláh’s works. Indeed, it is arguably the most central value running through the entirety of the Bahá’í writings. Bahá’u’lláh (in Tablets of Baha’u’llah 129, 168, 164, 90) explicitly proclaims: "The purpose of religion as revealed from the heaven of God’s holy Will is to establish unity and concord amongst the peoples of the world; make it not the cause of dissension and strife." And again: "The fundamental purpose animating the Faith of God and His Religion is to safeguard the interests and promote the unity of the human race, and to foster the spirit of love and fellowship amongst men. Suffer it not to become a source of dissension and

28. In each human being, Bahá’u’lláh proclaims, "are potentially revealed all the attributes and names of God" (Kitáb-i-lqán: The Book of Certitude, trans. Shoghi Effendi, new pocket-size ed. [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2003, 2005 printing] 107). 29. Bahá’u’lláh, Hidden Words Arabic 13. 30. Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh revealed after the Kitáb-Aqdas, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, trans. Habib Taherzadeh et. al, 1st pocket-size ed. (Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1988, 2005 printing) 161-62. 31. On the concept of perfectionism in moral and political philosophy, see Raz, Morality of Freedom. 32. Andrew Mason, Community, Solidarity and Belonging (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000) 27. [Page 18]Because the inherent dignity comprising the freedom, equality, and nobility of the person is a spiritual or moral status, it commands the respect of others: In other words, it imposes moral responsibilities that specify how human beings ought to treat each other. Thus the inherent dignity of each person also goes hand in hand with the third fundamental value to which Bahá’í electoral institutions aspire: justice and fairness (or justice and equity). If solidarity identifies a disposition of character on the part of individuals to recognize the inherent dignity of others, the third value of justice and fairness imposes the moral responsibility to do so.

discord, of hate and enmity." With a metaphor Bahá’u’lláh expresses the same value: "O well-beloved ones! The tabernacle of unity hath been raised; regard ye not one another as strangers. Ye are the fruits of one tree, and the leaves of one branch." He goes so far as to make solidarity with other human beings, implied by the value of unity, into an ethical duty: "It behoveth man to adhere tenaciously unto that which will promote fellowship, kindliness and unity." Bahá’u’lláh’s Hidden Words (Arabic 30) make the same point metaphorically: "O Son of Man! Deny not My servant should he ask anything from thee, for his face is My face; be then abashed before Me."

33. On the centrality of justice, see the passages from Bahá’u’lláh compiled by Shoghi Effendi in Advent of Divine Justice 27-28. Shoghi Effendi concludes (p. 27) that justice is "a principle that must be regarded as the crowning distinction of all Local and National Assemblies." While the central role of justice in Bahá’í moral and political philosophy is clear, there has been little systematic philosophical investigation of the concept in Bahá’í thought. Such study is complicated by the fact that the English word justice, in Shoghi Effendi's English translations, actually corresponds to two distinct terms ('adl and insaf) in the Arabic sources. [Page 19]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, 1953. Horace Holley (back row, right) was Secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in 1927 when it adopted the Declaration of Trust and By-Laws of the National Spiritual Assembly. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

In sum: Bahá’í institutions are noninstrumentally valuable insofar as they (1) respect the inherent dignity (freedom, equality, and nobility) of each human being; (2) express or embody the unity and solidarity of human beings collectively; and (3) are just and fair. These three values operate at the most abstract level of normative justification. The question is how to interpret and apply them to the particular case of electoral institutions and norms.

3.1 EXPRESSING THE INHERENT DIGNITY OF THE PERSON: FREEDOM

The core value of freedom finds expression in at least three ways in Shoghi Effendi’s discussion of elections. The first is that the electoral process ought to be characterized by the widespread participation of the members of the community in the selection of their representatives. 34 This corresponds to the formal institutional rule giving

34. See Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís in the East, February 27, 1923, in The Compilation of Compilations: Prepared by The Universal House of Justice 1963-1990, vol. 1 (Maryborough, Victoria, Australia: Bahá’í Publications Australia, 1991) no. 706. [Page 20]ARASH ABIZADEH community members in good standing the right to vote for their representatives, whether directly or indirectly." The second expression of the core value of freedom is that the voting process ought to respect voters' freedom to vote according to the dictates of their own conscience (just as the consultation process ought to respect the freedom to speak one's conscience).36 This value of respecting the freedom of the voter's conscience is precisely how Shoghi Effendi justifies three formal institutional rules designed to eliminate any restriction on whom a voter may vote for: the rule that all adult community members in good standing are candidates for national office; the cor- responding ban on nominations; and the corresponding rejection of term limits for elected representatives." The value of respecting the freedom of the voter's conscience is also a consid- eration Shoghi Effendi cites in favor of plurality-rule over sequential majority-rule voting at National Convention. ("Sequential" refers to the fact that, in case the nine persons receiving the most votes have not each received votes at least equal to the majority of delegates, subsequent rounds or run-offs are held until nine persons have done so.) Until 1928 elections for the NSA of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada were conducted by sequential majority- rather than plurality-rule voting. Loni Bramson-Lerche, a lecturer in religious studies, notes that this made for a rather cumbersome electoral process. Since only a portion of delegates attended National Convention during this period, and since often four or five rounds of balloting were required to secure a majority of delegates' votes for each of nine persons, the NSA was obliged to telegraph absent delegates repeatedly for their votes until a new NSA was elected." The NSA had repeatedly queried Shoghi Effendi about which pro- 35. Shoghi Effendi refers to "the vital importance and necessity of the right of voting" (This Decisive Hour: Messages from Shoghi Effendi to the North American Bahá'is 1932-1946 [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 2002] no. 15.1). 36. In the context of speech or consultation, Shoghi Effendi writes that "at the very root of the Cause lies the principle of the undoubted right of the individual to self-expression, his freedom to declare his conscience and set forth his views" (letter to the Bahá'ís in America, February 23, 1924, in Bahá'í Administration 63). 37. According to Will C. van den Hoonaard, "One prominent member of the Montreal Bahá'í community also believed that local Assemblies should be undergoing constant change in Assembly membership, with at least three new members elected each year, and three rotating off. At the instruc- tions of Shoghi Effendi, this practice was also dropped since it was felt that it vitiated the process of democratically electing Spiritual Assemblies from the membership at large" (The Origins of the Bahá' Community of Canada, 1898-1948 [Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier UP, 1996] 158). Van den Hoonaard cites as his source a letter from Horace Holley, Secretary of the NSA of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, to Anne Savage, secretary of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, September 5, 1934. 38. Bramson-Lerche, "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá'í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936" 280. See also the letters of the NSA of the United States and Canada to Shoghi Effendi, May 6, May 9, and June 21, 1927 (printed on pages 54-58, 61). The May 6, 1927, letter indicates that in 1927, for example, only thirty-three of ninety-one elected delegates (out of a possible ninety-five) were present at National Convention (ninety-five being the number of delegates Shoghi Effendi had, at that time, designated for America, including the Pacific Islands (see Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'í Administration 40). 20 World Order, 2005, Vol. 37, No. 1 [Page 21]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the East Leeward Islands, 2005. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

The first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Cameroon, 1967. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

cedure to adopt, but, as Bramson-Lerche observes, "as always, Shoghi Effendi wished the National Assembly to work out a solution itself."³⁹ Furthermore, during this early period, elections for the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada were preceded by nominations. Each delegate could nominate as many persons as he or she wished, following which delegates would vote for nine persons from among the nominees. Absent delegates, however, could not make nominations, which some felt was unfair, since, in effect, the procedure meant that the slate of nominees was determined by only a portion of the delegates. In a May 27, 1927, letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, Shoghi Effendi, still refraining from deciding the matter for the NSA, responded to its requests for guidance by recommending the consideration of the following reasons in favor of provisionally adopting plurality-rule voting:

The general practice prevailing throughout the East is the one based upon the principle of plurality rather than absolute majority, whereby those candidates that have obtained the highest number of votes, irrespective of the fact whether they command an absolute majority of the votes cast or not, are automatically and definitely elected. It has been felt, with no little justification, that this method, admittedly disadvantageous in its disregard of the principle that requires that each

39. Bramson-Lerche, "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá’í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936" 280. As I suggest in section 1 (page 11), Shoghi Effendi's attitude was based at least in part on the fact that he did not possess legislative authority. To have any formal legal authority, his recommendations for constitutional arrangements consequently had to be legislated by the representative governing bodies of the Bahá’í community.

40. See NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, letter to Shoghi Effendi, May 9, 1927 (pages 56-58). Cf. Bramson-Lerche, "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá’í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936" 281. [Page 22]elected member must secure a majority of the votes cast, does away on the other hand with the more serious disadvantage of restricting the freedom of the elector who, unhampered and unconstrained by electoral necessities, is called upon to vote for none but those whom prayer and reflection have inspired him to uphold. Moreover, the practice of nomination, so detrimental to the atmosphere of a silent and prayerful election, is viewed with mistrust inasmuch as it gives the right to the majority of a body that, in itself under the present circumstances, often constitutes a minority of all the elected delegates, to deny that God-given right of every elector to vote only in favor of those who he is conscientiously convinced are the most worthy candidates. Should this simple system be provisionally adopted, it would safeguard the spiritual principle of the unfettered freedom of the voter, who will thus preserve intact the sanctity of the choice he first made. It would avoid the inconvenience of securing advance nominations from absent delegates, and the impracticality of associating them with the assembled electors in the subsequent ballots that are often required to meet the exigencies of majority vote.41

ONE KIND OF ARGUMENT CITED BY SHOGHI EFFENDI FOR BANNING NOMINATIONS AND FAVORING PLURALITY-RULE RATHER THAN SEQUENTIAL MAJORITY-RULE VOTING IS BASED ON RESPECT FOR THE FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE OF THE VOTER (A NONINSTRUMENTAL VALUE).

Thus one kind of argument cited by Shoghi Effendi for banning nominations and favoring plurality-rule rather than sequential majority-rule voting is based on respect for the freedom of conscience of the voter (a noninstrumental value). The problem with nominations is that the freedom of absent delegates would be formally constrained, since they could vote only for those nominated by the delegates present at National Convention. 42 The problem with majority-rule voting arises from the

41. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, May 27, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 136 (emphasis added).

42. The same points are made in a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to Dr. Adelbert Mühlschlegel, a member of the NSA of Germany and Austria (February 4, 1935, in Light of Divine Guidance vol. 1, 68, 67, 68-69), which says that the practice of nominations would "seriously" endanger the "freedom of the Bahá’í elector in choosing the members of any Bahá’í assembly." It then goes on to say that "the Guardian wishes to draw your Assembly's attention to the necessity of adopting the system of plurality voting rather than that of absolute majority voting. For the latter, by making the repetition of elections a necessity, causes, though indirectly, much pressure to bear upon the person of the elector. The Bahá’í elector, as already emphasized, should be given full freedom in his choice. Anything, therefore, which can in the least interfere with such a freedom should be considered as disastrous and hence should be completely wiped out. In all elections, it is always difficult, that more than a few individuals of high position should obtain a majority of the votes of the electorate. Most of those elected have a plurality of votes. To enforce the principle of majority voting, therefore, it requires that the election be repeated again and again and until all the members to be elected have obtained more than half of the votes cast-a thing which becomes the more difficult when it is a matter of electing an Assembly of nine persons. So, repetition in elections becomes inevitable. And such a repetition is in itself a restriction imposed upon the freedom of the electorate." [Page 23]successive rounds of voting that were typically required. If each delegate continued in successive rounds to vote as he or she had done before, no candidates would ever receive a majority of votes. The resulting deadlock would mean that voters would feel pressured (though not formally constrained) to vote differently from how they voted when solely considering persons' qualifications in the first round. It is clear that Shoghi Effendi's objection is not to majority-rule voting per se; indeed, in principle he seems to consider it superior to plurality rule. His objection is, rather, to the likely possibility of sequential rounds that would pressure voters to change their vote simply to avoid a deadlock.

Another point to note about the long passage quoted from Shoghi Effendi's May 27, 1927, letter is that his recommendations for institutional rules are grounded in, and derive from, the values to which he appeals. In each case, his recommendation is made on the basis of weighing reasons for and against different sets of rules—reasons deriving from both noninstrumental values (for example, respect for freedom) and instrumental values that hinge on the particular circumstances of the day (for example, efficiency or pragmatic feasibility). It is important to see that respect for the voter's freedom to express his or her conscience in voting is only one reason among others that Shoghi Effendi considers when recommending plurality rule or the ban on nominations.

Shoghi Effendi's attention to the context and weight of different reasons, which may pull in various directions, is important because few of the reasons that he cites are of a kind that simply trump all countervailing reasons. Consider, for example, the case of tie votes. In 1927, after there was a tie for ninth place at the British National Convention, the British Bahá’ís decided that the membership of their NSA would consist of that year's top ten vote-receivers. In response, Shoghi Effendi wrote that "next year, the number of members should be strictly confined to nine, and a second ballot is quite proper and justified" to break the tie. Consequently, under the current institutional rules adopted by NSAs worldwide, when there is a tie, further rounds of voting are held where delegates are only allowed to vote for the persons tied in the previous round (Canadian NSA By-Laws art. 13, §10).44 This means that even plurality-rule voting potentially has sequential rounds and that the freedom of a voter to vote for whomever he or she wishes is formally restricted in subsequent rounds. It is even possible that none of the tied persons was among the persons for whom the delegate had voted in the first round. The point is that, while, according to Shoghi Effendi, respect for the voter's freedom of conscience provides a reason against sequential voting of the kind that pressures voters to change their votes, this respect does not provide a trumping reason. Otherwise, Shoghi Effendi

43. Shoghi Effendi, postscript in his own handwriting to a letter written on his behalf to Mr. [George] Simpson, May 13, 1927, in Shoghi Effendi, The Unfolding Destiny: The Messages of the Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith to the Bahá’ís of the British Isles (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1981) 70-71. 44. Art. 13, $10, in Bahá’í Assemblies is art. 8, $10, in "Model Declaration," in Bahá’í World, vol. 15: 659. [Page 24]might have recommended breaking ties by holding a second round in which one could once again vote for anyone, rather than only for the persons who were tied in the previous round. What this respect actually requires may vary according to circumstances, and the reasons it provides for one kind of institutional arrangement may be overridden by countervailing reasons. In the case of ties, the reasons against sequential voting and against restricting for whom one can vote are presumably overridden by pragmatic reasons and by further consideration of what respect for freedom means.

The third and final implication of the core value of freedom for national Bahá’í elections is the requirement that the election process actually be sensitive to the judgment of voters. This third consideration implicitly follows from the first two (the emphasis on widespread participation and respect for the voter's conscience). To value participation and respect for each participant's conscience is implicitly to assume that each person's participation and conscience should matter for electoral outcomes. In other words, it is to assume that ensuring that electoral outcomes are sensitive to the judgment of participants is valuable. (Otherwise, one could select representatives by lot or decree.)

Note that there are two distinct kinds of reason why it might be thought that the judgment of voters should make a difference to electoral outcomes. First, one might defend sensitivity on instrumental grounds: One might think that sensitivity to the views of voters actually helps produce the best outcomes—for example, it [Page 25]helps select the most qualified representatives. Such instrumental reasons are indeed important for Bahá’í elections, as we shall see, but they are not the reason under consideration here. Respect for the freedom of the person demands a selection mechanism that is sensitive to the views of voters for noninstrumental reasons-that is, independent of whether taking voters' judgments into account leads to better outcomes or not. Ensuring widespread participation, respecting the freedom of conscience of each voter, and ensuring that the voting mechanism is sensitive to each person's judgment is a matter of respecting the dignity and freedom of each person represented, regardless of whether doing so leads to better outcomes.

3.2 EXPRESSING THE INHERENT DIGNITY OF THE PERSON: EQUALITY

The core value of equality finds expression in several ways in national Bahá’í electoral rules. The equality of all human beings grounds the formal institutional rule that all adult members of the community in good standing, irrespective of their class, ethnicity, race, 15 or gender, 46 are eligible to participate in the election of delegates, to be elected as delegates, and to be elected as members of the NSA. While respect for the freedom of each voter to vote according to his or her conscience gives rise to the formal institutional rule that all adults in good standing are candidates for election, respect for equality is the basis for the informal norm according to which all forms of discrimination must be eliminated in the voting process. 47 This norm places a crucial spiritual and moral responsibility on all persons to examine critically

45. In a letter to an individual, August 11, 1933, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 712, Shoghi Effendi writes: "I do not feel it to be in keeping with the spirit of the Cause to impose any limitation upon the freedom of the believers to choose those of any race, nationality or temperament who best combine the essential qualifications for membership of administrative institutions" (emphasis in the original). In a June 3, 1925, letter to the delegates and visitors to the Bahá’í Convention, Green Acre, Maine, USA, in Bahá’í Administration 88, Shoghi Effendi says that "it is incumbent upon the chosen delegates to consider" for whom to vote "without the least trace of passion and prejudice, and irrespective of any material considerations."

46. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that, "At the time of elections the right to vote is the inalienable right of women, and the entrance of women into all human departments is an irrefutable and incontrovertible question" (Paris Talks: Addresses Given by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in 1911, 12th ed. [London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1995] no. 59.1). The commitment to this core value of equality is precisely the reason why the exclusion of women from membership in the Universal House of Justice at the international level is always presented as an exception. The reason why this exception has proven so troubling for many Bahá’ís is that it appears completely ad hoc.

47. "To discriminate against any race, on the ground of its being socially backward, politically immature, and numerically in a minority, is a flagrant violation of the spirit that animates the Faith of Bahá’u’lláh. The consciousness of any division or cleavage in its ranks is alien to its very purpose, principles, and ideals. Once its members have fully recognized the claim of its Author, and, by identifying themselves with its Administrative Order, accepted unreservedly the principles and laws embodied in its teachings, every differentiation of class, creed, or color must automatically be obliterated, and never be allowed, under any pretext, and however great the pressure of events or of public opinion, to reassert itself" (Shoghi Effendi, Advent of Divine Justice 35). [Page 26]their own attitudes in the voting process, to ensure that they are not voting on the basis of prejudice.48

If respect for freedom requires a voting process that is sensitive to the judgment of participants in general, respect for the equality of persons requires a voting process that is sensitive to each voter's judgment in a roughly equal way. Respect for the freedom and equality of persons thus also requires a voting process that meets basic standards of justice and fairness (see section 3.5 on pages 32-33).

3.3 EXPRESSING THE INHERENT DIGNITY OF THE PERSON: NOBILITY

Respect for the nobility of the person and the corresponding institutional rules and informal norms constitute what are perhaps the most distinctive features of Bahá’í elections. The core value of nobility finds expression in at least two ways in Shoghi Effendi’s writings on Bahá’í elections: in the informal norm of individual participant responsibility and in the institutional rules and informal norms designed to safeguard the spiritual dignity of the electoral process.

To begin with, if nobility is premised on the spiritual potential of human beings to realize perfections or virtues of character, respecting this potential is, in part, to place responsibilities upon individuals, responsibilities that are part and parcel of realizing their highest potential. The realization of human potential demands not only education for the individual but also imposes ethical responsibilities on the individual. Hence, while respect for freedom demands the formal institutional right to participate in the selection of one's own representatives, respect for nobility involves holding the individual ethically responsible for such participation. This is reflected in the informal norm, in Bahá’í elections, according to which such participation is a "sacred duty" and "responsibility."50

48. These rules and norms are grounded in respect for equality of the person found in the Bahá’í sacred writings, not in an equal right to hold office, for respect for equality does not imply that each individual has an equal right to hold office. See the memorandum by Universal House of Justice, published in The Sanctity and Nature of Bahá’í Elections, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990) no. 18: "Election to an Assembly, from a Bahá’í point of view, is not a right that people are entitled to, or an honour to which they should aspire; it is a duty and responsibility to which they may be called."

49. A February 4, 1935, letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to the NSA of Germany and Austria (in Light of Divine Guidance vol. 1, 67) states that the absence of nominations "constitutes the distinguishing feature and marked superiority of the Bahá’í electoral methods over those commonly associated with political [sic] parties and factions."

50. Shoghi Effendi refers to each person's "sacred duty to take part, conscientiously and diligently, in the election, the consolidation, and the efficient working of his own local Assembly" (letter to the Bahá’ís in America, Great Britain, Germany, France, Switzerland, Italy, Japan, and Australasia, March 12, 1923, in Bahá’í Administration 39). Shoghi Effendi also refers to "the vital importance and necessity of the right of voting," which he calls "a sacred responsibility" (This Decisive Hour no. 15.1). The full text in This Decisive Hour (no. 15.1) indicates, however, that this ethical responsibility should not be translated into a sanctioned institutional or legal obligation: "I feel I must reaffirm the vital importance and necessity of the right of voting-a sacred responsibility of which no adult recognized believer should be deprived.... This distinguishing right which the believer possesses, however, does not carry with it nor does it imply an obligation to cast his vote, if he feels that the circumstances under which he lives do not justify or allow him to exercise that right intelligently and with understanding. This is a [Page 27]

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The second requirement of respect for nobility concerns the institutional context and nature of that participation. Respect for nobility demands electoral institutions and norms that themselves express or embody the dignity they attribute to the persons partaking in elections. Shoghi Effendi has thus interpreted the value of dignity to require a "silent and prayerful" electoral process, in which each individual has the opportunity to vote "after meditation and reflection" in a "rarefied atmosphere of selflessness and detachment" for "none but those whom prayer and reflection have inspired him to uphold."

The spiritual character of the election process gives rise to an injunction against seeking to influence others' votes by discussing personalities before elections. This injunction against discussing particular candidates, in turn, is the basis for four formal institutional rules: that voting be conducted according to secret ballot; that there be no campaigning, canvassing, or election propaganda; that there be no coalition-, faction-, or party-formation; and that there be no nominations.

The ban on discussion of personalities raises the question, of course, of why discourse or deliberation should be considered as undermining the spiritual character of elections. After all, in other contexts, the Bahá’í writings emphasize the necessity and, indeed, the spiritual character of the process of discourse or consultation. Thus the question is why things should be different here. Why is discussion of how one intends to vote or how others ought to vote contrary to the spiritual character of elections? In fact, Shoghi Effendi does not quite claim that it is. What he says is that discussion should in no way refer to specific persons:

I feel that reference to personalities before the election would give rise to misunderstanding and differences. What the friends should do is to get thoroughly. acquainted with one another, to exchange views, to mix freely and discuss among matter which should be left to the individual to decide himself according to his own conscience and discretion." This freedom from institutional sanction is presumably designed to respect the freedom of conscience of the person.

51. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, May 27, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 136; Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of Iran, July 1, 1943, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 716; Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís in America, February 23, 1925, in Bahá’í Administration 65; and Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, May 27, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 136.

52. "Let them exercise the utmost vigilance so that the elections are carried out freely, universally and by secret ballot. Any form of intrigue, deception, collusion and compulsion must be stopped and is forbidden" (Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to a Local Spiritual Assembly, March 18, 1932, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 714). See also the letters written by or on behalf of Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice in Sanctity and Nature of Bahá’í Elections nos. 19-27. Cf. Lights of Guidance nos. 31-39.

53. Bahá’u’lláh writes that "The heaven of divine wisdom is illumined with the two luminaries of consultation and compassion. Take ye counsel together in all matters, inasmuch as consultation is the lamp of guidance which leadeth the way, and is the bestower of understanding" (Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh 168). [Page 28]themselves the requirements and qualifications for such a membership without reference or application, however indirect, to particular individuals. We should refrain from influencing the opinion of others, of canvassing for any particular individual."

Hence this is not an injunction against discussion of the electoral process or of desirable electoral outcomes as such but, rather, an injunction against certain kinds of discussion. The first kind is discussion of particular individuals. The second kind is discourse for the purpose of coalition-, faction-, or party-formation (presumably even if such discourse did not make reference to particular persons). With this clarification in mind, we can now pose the relevant question more precisely. Why would discussion of these kinds compromise respect for the nobility of persons and undermine the spiritual character of elections?

The reasons are several. The first is that allowing discourse about personalities in the context of elections would provide strong institutional incentives for individuals to violate one of the most central Bahá’í moral norms: the prohibition against backbiting, which Bahá’u’lláh directly links to the spiritual potential of human beings. Bahá’u’lláh declares that a human being should "regard backbiting as grievous error, and keep himself aloof from its dominion, inasmuch as backbiting quencheth the light of the heart, and extinguisheth the life of the soul." To backbite is to undermine the realization of one's own spiritual potentialities; it is an affront to one's own nobility. In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, without attaching any legal sanctions, Bahá’u’lláh goes so far as to morally outlaw backbiting-and this in the same breath as murder,

The appeal to the prohibition against backbiting, however, is open to at least two objections. The first concedes that negative campaigning consists of backbiting, that it is a morally impermissible affront to the dignity of persons, and that it undermines the spiritual character of elections. But the question here is why not simply ban negative discussion of personalities? Why not allow discourse confined to positive statements about particular persons? How, it might be asked, would praise for particular persons undermine the spiritual character of electoral processes? Surely positive speech is not backbiting. (Nominating candidates for election can plausibly be seen as a kind of laudatory speech or "praise" of a person.)

The second objection goes further. It concedes that negative speech about persons constitutes, in many contexts, morally impermissible backbiting, but it rightly points

54. Shoghi Effendi, letter to a Local Spiritual Assembly, May 14, 1927, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 709 (emphasis added).

55. See the passage from Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 714, quoted in footnote 52.

56. Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Igán $214.

57. "Ye have been forbidden to commit murder or adultery, or to engage in backbiting or calumny; shun ye, then, what hath been prohibited in the holy Books and Tablets" (Bahá’u’lláh, The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1993, 2005 printing] $19). The Hidden Words (Arabic 27) command: "O Son of Man! Breathe not the sins of others so long as thou art thyself a sinner. Shouldst thou transgress this command, accursed wouldst thou be, and to this I bear witness." [Page 29]

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out that there are many contexts in which even negative or critical speech about a person's qualities is morally permissible and even perhaps required. Obvious examples include speech by educators or caregivers in educational, family, or medical contexts; speech by employers or administrators who must evaluate candidates for jobs or posts in professional contexts; speech by participants in judicial proceedings; reporting crimes; or speaking out against atrocities. Perhaps whether something even counts as backbiting depends on what the speaker's intentions are. While clearly not all "negative" speech about others qualifies as morally forbidden backbiting, what actually constitutes backbiting, for the purposes of this Bahá’í moral norm, has not yet been the subject of systematic philosophical analysis in Bahá’í studies. What is clear, however, is that there are morally significant distinctions to be made between "negative" speech about others depending on the context and the content (and perhaps even intentions).

The second objection thus urges that elections for representatives are precisely one context in which even negative or critical speech about individuals should be permissible. Even negative speech should be permissible in elections, according to this objection, because the central and publicly justifiable purpose of elections is to select representatives with certain qualities, and only through discourse (whether positive or negative) about particular persons could voters come to know which persons possess these qualities. The fact that we are dealing with the election of national representatives makes the objection even stronger because ensuring the qualifications of persons who fill positions of power and authority is particularly urgent. Indeed, one might point to the original Arabic term that "backbiting" translates (al-ghaybah), which connotes the absence of the person spoken of, to argue that backbiting refers only to the private sphere and not to public contexts such as elections. The ban on negative speech in public contexts, it might thus be argued, is premised on the dangerously utopian fantasy of a world without conflict over interests and values.

To assume away conflicts over interests or values when they are inevitable in any society would, indeed, be a dangerous chimera. It would consist in using a façade of harmony to "resolve" conflicts ideologically through the sheer imposition of power by a dominant group. But, in fact, the ban on negative campaigning and, indeed, all reference to personalities in the electoral context is not premised on the false assumption that there are no conflicts of interest or value. The ban is premised, rather, on a particular assumption about how such conflicts are best addressed. This points to the second reason for prohibiting reference to personalities in Bahá’í elections. Bahá’í elections are premised on a complete separation of two functions that in traditional electoral campaigns are fused together: resolving conflicts over interests and values (that is, determining policy) and selecting representatives (that is, determining personnel). This separation assumes that conflicts of interest and value are best addressed by processes of decision making (such as processes of [Page 30]consultation or voting) that are directly about the interests or values in question, rather than about personalities. And the primary (instrumental) purpose of NSA elections is to select particular individuals to office, not to resolve policy questions. NSA elections are about determining personnel, not policy. Conflating these two functions procedurally provides incentives for turning conflicts over interests or values into personality conflicts rather than for addressing conflicts through reasoned consultation about the issues themselves.

Ironically, far from devaluing the role of discourse, or presuming a conflict-free fantasy world, the ban on certain kinds of discourse in elections is designed to facilitate the central role of deliberation in conflict resolution. Bahá’í institutions assume that conflict resolution must be conducted by consultation (or, as the case may be, by voting) about the issues; but the election of representatives consists in voting for persons. This separation is well reflected in the very institution of the National Convention itself, which has two fully distinct and separate functions: to advise the new NSA by deliberating about issues of policy and to elect the members of the NSA. The ban on private and public discussion of personalities--whether negative or positive-for the purpose of influencing others' voting is premised on the institutional separation of these two distinct functions.

The prohibition against discussing personalities in Bahá’í elections is grounded in the noninstrumental value of respect for the dignity of persons. Hence it is important to see that the two objections appeal to the instrumental value of such discussion as a means for facilitating desirable outcomes. The primary outcome in question, of course, is the election of persons to the NSA who meet the requisite qualifications (by providing voters with the information they need to make informed voting choices about candidates). The problem is that this outcome (and hence some means for securing it) is a value held dearly by Bahá’í electoral institutions as well (for example, to ensure that ethically corrupt or incompetent individuals are not selected as representatives is good.) Thus, if the proposed means for securing the desired end is ruled out on noninstrumental grounds, some other means for securing the outcome must be found. These means, on which Bahá’í institutional rules and informal norms rely, are discussed in section 4.1 on the selection function of Bahá’í elections (pages 34-43). (They center on norms of institutional transparency and universal participation, which are divorced from the election process itself and are centered, instead, on the day-to-day affairs of the community.)

The first reason, then, for the ban on discussing personalities during Bahá’í elections is that permitting such discussion would provide institutional incentives for backbiting and, more generally, negative campaigning against particular persons. The second reason is that this ban facilitates the separation of policy and personality issues. The third reason, not yet considered, is more directly relevant to the issue of "positive" campaigning. The problem with combining elections and even positive discourse about persons is that it provides institutional incentives for individual ego-

58. See Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, January 29, 1925, in Bahá’í Administration 78-79. [Page 31]

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The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Kiribati, 1998. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

and self-promotion. Such incentives would undermine the virtues of character that the Bahá’í writings portray as helping to constitute the spiritual perfection and nobility of human beings. Invoking the same "dust" that metaphorically grounds the fundamental moral equality of persons, the Hidden Words warn:

O Son of Dust! Verily I say unto thee: Of all men the most negligent is he that disputeth idly and seeketh to advance himself over his brother. Say: O brethren! Let deeds, not words, be your adorning,"

The point is that institutions that respect the nobility of persons ought to be consistent with, rather than provide incentives for undermining, the nobility they attribute to persons. (Another distinct reason that cuts against allowing for self-promotion is instrumental: There may be reason to think that individuals who covet positions of authority are precisely not most qualified to fill those positions. Plato expressed this concern long ago in The Republic.)

Of course, it may now be objected that one could disallow positive campaigning for oneself but allow positive campaigning on behalf of others without raising the problem of self-promotion. This may to some extent be correct, but the reasons for banning positive discourse about personalities are distinct. The problem is that positive campaigning on behalf of others is an instrument for coalition- or faction-formation. (There is, as far as I can see, nothing about praising others before elections

59. Bahá’u’lláh, Hidden Words Persian 8. [Page 32]that inherently disrespects the nobility of either the person speaking or the person spoken of. The problem is an instrumental one.) This final consideration assumes that faction-formation undermines the spiritual character of elections. The question is why. The answer depends on remembering what these factions would be about: They would be centered on particular persons-that is, they would be voting coalitions in favor of distinct individuals. Organized campaigning and voting coalitions are contrary to the spirit of Bahá’í elections because they provide institutional incentives for ego-promotion by proxy, deception, and, above all, reifying the cleavages and conflicts in the community and centering these reifications on personality clashes."

In sum: To respect the nobility of the person is to appeal to human beings' highest spiritual potential, a potential that is portrayed by Bahá’u’lláh’s writings as the very basis for our nobility. This spiritual potential is characterized by human beings' capacity to act morally and selflessly in their relations with each other. Respect for nobility demands that electoral institutions be consistent with the realization of that potential.

3.4 EXPRESSING THE UNITY AND SOLIDARITY OF PERSONS

The spiritual character of elections, which expresses the inherent dignity of each person, also expresses the fundamental bond of humanity that unites all persons. Indeed, many of the institutional rules and informal norms that express respect for the nobility of the person individually also express the unity and solidarity of persons collectively. One example is the informal norm that places responsibility on each person to participate in the selection of national representatives: Joint participation also expresses solidarity. A second example is the ban on negative campaigning: Refraining from backbiting implicitly expresses a bond of solidarity with the human being whom one thus protects. A third example is the ban on faction- or coalition-formation in the voting process, which would pit one personality-based group against another.

3.5 THE INHERENT JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS OF THE ELECTION PROCESS

The value of justice and fairness implies that individual voters ought to be represented in the electoral process, and their judgments aggregated, in a nonarbitrary way that is to say, in an equal, fair, and rational manner. This requirement gives rise to at least two institutional rules in Bahá’í elections. First, in elections for delegates and for NSA members, the number of votes each voter can cast must be equal in number to those that each other voter can cast. Second, since NSA elections are conducted indirectly via delegates, each delegate must represent roughly an equal number of voters. Shoghi Effendi has explicitly interpreted the value of justice and

60. This is the concern raised by the NSA of the United States and Canada in paragraph 3 of its May 9, 1927, letter to Shoghi Effendi: that practices such as nomination might "bring the Bahá’í elections down to the level of human personality." See pages 56-58 for the text of the letter. [Page 33]fairness to require such a principle of proportional representation. In a 1925 letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, in which he discusses various ways to organize the two-step process of electing the NSA, Shoghi Effendi rejects, on precisely these grounds, the idea of having the delegates to the National Convention consist of the nine members of each Local Spiritual Assembly:

were the local Spiritual Assemblies, the number of whose members is strictly confined to nine, to elect directly the members of the National Spiritual Assembly ...all Bahá’í localities, which must necessarily differ in numerical strength, would then have to share equally in the election of the National Spiritual Assembly- a practice which would be contrary to fairness and justice.

This notion of the justice and fairness of institutions is obviously conceptually related to respect for the equality of persons.

4. The Instrumental Value of Bahá’í Electoral Institutions and Norms

While a number of noninstrumental values place important constraints on national Bahá’í electoral institutions and norms, it is clear that, to a large extent, the point of having elections is to yield certain outcomes. The most obvious outcome is, of course, the selection of good representatives. But national Bahá’í elections aspire to serve as an instrument for, and can be justified and evaluated in terms of, at least three other purposes as well: legitimating Bahá’í administrative institutions, fostering virtues of character among individual participants, and fostering unity and solidarity within the community as a whole. Thus there is significant overlap between the values that national Bahá’í elections seek to express and embody-in their own processes, as it were-and the values that they seek to promote instrumentally as outcomes. For example, Bahá’í elections seek not only to respect the nobility of the

61. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, May 12, 1925, in Bahá’í Administration 85. In God Passes By 332, Shoghi Effendi refers to "the principle of proportional representation" according to which "these [National] Assemblies are elected... by delegates representative of Bahá’í local communities assembled at Convention." See also Bramson-Lerche, "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá’í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936" 277; and Bahá’í Assemblies art. 13 (art. 8 in "Model Declaration," in Bahá’í World, vol. 15: 658-59).

62. The commitment to justice and fairness also suggests, beyond a principle of proportional representation, a host of criteria for ideally ensuring that votes are aggregated in an equal, fair, and rational way, which social choice theorists have formalized primarily in the twentieth century. Such criteria might include nondictatorship, monotonicity, Pareto-optimality, independence from irrelevant alternatives, the Condorcet criterion, and Sen's a and ẞ+ criteria. (See Kenneth J. Arrow, Social Choice and Individual Values, 2d ed. (New Haven, CT, USA: Yale UP, 1963); William Riker, Liberalism Against Populism (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1980); and Amartya Sen, "Social Choice Theory: A Re-examination," Econometrica 45.1 (1977): 53-89.) Current Bahá’í voting rules do not actually fulfill all of these criteria; social choice theorists have shown that, under certain conditions, no social choice function could in principle simultaneously meet all the mentioned criteria. The point is that these criteria plausibly elaborate on what electoral institutions that seek to aggregate votes in an equal, fair, and rational way, aspire to express in principle. No voting rule can actually realize them: Since there is no such thing as a perfect voting rule, in practice one must strike some compromise between the various criteria.

63. A letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to two Bahá’ís, October 14, 1941, in The Compilation of Compilations: Prepared by The Universal House of Justice 1963-1990, vol. 2 (Maryborough, [Page 34]person but also to help participants realize the virtues whose potential is the basis of human nobility; they not only seek inherently to express the unity and solidarity persons but also actually to lead to greater unity and solidarity in the Bahá’í community.

BAHÁ’Í ELECTIONS SEEK NOT ONLY TO RESPECT THE NOBILITY OF THE PERSON BUT ALSO TO HELP PARTICIPANTS REALIZE THE VIRTUES WHOSE POTENTIAL IS THE BASIS FOR HUMAN NOBILITY.

Despite such overlap, it is important to keep in mind the distinction between the noninstrumental and the instrumental value of Bahá’í elections because each consideration actually provides distinct criteria for justifying and evaluating specific institutional rules and informal norms.

4.1 THE SELECTION FUNCTION: ELECTING REPRESENTATIVES

National Bahá’í electoral rules and norms are instrumentally valuable to the extent that they facilitate selecting the most desirable national representatives. But what counts as the most desirable national representatives? There are, I suggest, five criteria for judging which national representatives are most desirable.

(1) Bahá’í voters are most familiar with the following criteria given by Shoghi Effendi, according to which those elected as representatives ought to possess the "qualities of unquestioned loyalty, of selfless devotion, of a well-trained mind, of recognized ability and mature experience" and be "faithful, sincere, experienced, capable and competent." This first set of criteria specifies the qualities that the individuals who hold office ought to possess. Bahá’í electoral processes are instrumentally valuable, then, to the extent that they help cause individuals who meet these criteria be selected as representatives.

(2) But the purpose of national Bahá’í elections is not simply to elect individuals to office; it is to elect a collective body. The quality of an Assembly will depend not merely on the separate qualifications of each individual representative but also on the way that these individuals combine to complement one another as a whole. For example, the nine individuals who make up an Assembly may all be loyal, selfless, intellectually well-trained, and so on. But, if all nine members have exactly the same life experiences and come from exactly the same background, the lack of diversity may diminish the quality of the Assembly even though all the individuals who make

Victoria, Australia: Bahá’í Publications Australia, 1991) no. 1405, puts it this way: "The friends must never mistake the Bahá’í administration for an end in itself. It is merely the instrument of the spirit of the Faith." See also Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, January 10, 1926, in Bahá’í Administration 103: "all these administrative activities, however harmoniously and efficiently conducted, are but means to an end." This does not mean, of course, that the instrumental values informing Bahá’í elections trump the noninstrumental ones: The point of elections may be to serve as an instrument for yielding certain outcomes, but ethical considerations may place noninstrumental constraints on the means that may be used to obtain those outcomes.

64. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the delegates and visitors to the Bahá’í Convention, Green Acre, Maine, USA, June 3, 1925, in Bahá’í Administration 87-88; Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of Iran, July 1, 1943, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 716. [Page 35]

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МОНГОН БАХАЙЧУУДЫН ҮНД НИЙ ДУГР Улг 200

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Mongolia, 2005. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

up the Assembly are, considered individually, fully qualified. The second type of criteria, then, specifies the qualities that the collective Assembly ought to have as a whole, independent of the qualifications of the individuals considered separately.65 Shoghi Effendi specifically mentions four such criteria: diversity, representativeness, minority presence, and youth presence in the collective membership of the Assembly.

(2a) The criterion of diversity arises from a core Bahá’í value expressed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. He extols diversity as contributing "to the beauty, efficiency and perfection of the whole" and states that, "when divers shades of thought, temperament and character, are brought together under the power and influence of one central agency, the beauty and glory of human perfection will be revealed and made manifest."66

65. Compare a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to a Bahá’í, July 7, 1949, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 2, no. 1450: One needs "to fully grasp the fact that it is not the individuals on an Assembly which is important, but the Assembly as an institution."

66. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, trans. Committee at the Bahá’í World Centre and Marzieh Gail, Ist pocket-size ed. [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1996, 2004 printing]) no. 225.24-25). ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that "differences are of two kinds. One is the cause of annihilation and is like the antipathy existing among warring nations and conflicting tribes who seek each other's destruction, uprooting one another's families, depriving one another of rest and comfort and unleashing carnage. The other kind which is a token of diversity is the essence of perfection and the cause of the appearance of the bestowals of the Most Glorious Lord....

"... when that unifying force, the penetrating influence of the Word of God, taketh effect, the" [Page 36]Shoghi Effendi, referring to this passage, concludes that the "watchword" of the Bahá’í legal system is "unity in diversity."67 A 1934 letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to the NSA of India, Burma, and Pakistan specifically suggests that the concept of unity in diversity means that a diverse NSA membership is desirable.68

(2b) That outcomes of Bahá’í elections are to be evaluated collectively is also clear from Shoghi Effendi's comment that "The Assembly should be representative of the choicest and most varied and capable elements in every Bahá’í community." This comment not only reiterates the criterion of diversity but also provides a second criterion for evaluating the collective nature of Assembly membership: An Assembly ought to be representative of (the diversity present in) the community itself. Shoghi Effendi reiterates this when he says that Bahá’í elections must serve to "reinforce the representative character of Bahá’í institutions."

(2c) The third criterion that Shoghi Effendi provides (which is a corollary of the first two) requires the presence of minority groups in the collective membership of the Assembly. Shoghi Effendi refers to the duty of every Bahá’í community so to arrange its affairs that in cases where individuals belonging to the divers minority elements within it are already qualified and fulfill the necessary requirements, Bahá’í representative institutions, be they Assemblies, conventions, conferences, or committees, may have represented on them as many of these divers elements, racial or otherwise, as possible."

The qualifying clause "in cases where" indicates that this collective criterion, which recommends the presence of minorities on an Assembly, only comes into play once the qualifications of the individuals, considered separately as individuals, can also difference of customs, manners, habits, ideas, opinions and dispositions embellisheth the world of humanity. This diversity, this difference is like the naturally created dissimilarity and variety of the limbs and organs of the human body, for each one contributeth to the beauty, efficiency and perfection of the whole....

"... when divers shades of thought, temperament and character, are brought together under the power and influence of one central agency, the beauty and glory of human perfection will be revealed and made manifest" (Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá 225.23-25).

67. Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá’u’lláh 42.

68. "The differences of language and of social and intellectual background do, undoubtedly, render the work somewhat difficult to carry out and may temporarily check the efficient and smooth working of the national administrative machinery of the Faith. They, nevertheless, impart to the deliberations of the National Assembly a universality which they would be otherwise lacking, and give to its members a breadth of view which is their duty to cultivate and foster. It is not uniformity which we should seek in the formation of any national or local assembly. For the bedrock of the Bahá’í administrative order is the principle of unity in diversity, which has been so strongly and so repeatedly emphasized in the writings of the Cause" (Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to the NSA of India, Burma, and Pakistan, January 2, 1934, in Dawn of a New Day [New Delhi: Bahá’í Publishing Trust of India, 1970] 47-48 (emphasis added]).

69. Shoghi Effendi, letter to an individual, August 11, 1933, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 712 (emphasis added).

70. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of India, Burma, and Pakistan, May 8, 1947, in Dawn of a New Day 125.

71. Shoghi Effendi, Advent of Divine Justice 36. [Page 37]be secured. (In other words, the criterion of minority presence is subordinate to ensuring that the individuals are loyal, selfless, intellectually well-trained, and so on.)

Shoghi Effendi appeals to diversity, representativeness, and minority presence to provide one justification for the formal institutional rule that in the case of ties priority be given to the member of a minority group.⁷²

(2d) A fourth criterion (which is another corollary of the criterion of diversity) is mentioned in a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi: that some of the membership of the NSA be young.⁷³

All four of these criteria—diversity, representativeness, minority presence, and youth presence—demonstrate why it is crucial to distinguish the qualifications of individuals considered separately from the qualifications that apply to the Assembly’s membership taken as a collective whole. Being a member of a minority group or being young is obviously not a criterion for determining whether any particular individual is qualified to be a representative. The second type of criteria refers to values that can only be specified in relation to the collective nature of an Assembly as a whole, not the individual members’ qualifications.

3) The first two types of criteria we have just considered (the qualifications of individual NSA members and the nature of the collective body) tell us what would be a desirable electoral outcome in any particular single election. But a set of electoral rules and norms may also affect how electoral outcomes change over time, over a series of elections. The third set of criteria thus tell us what kind of changes would be desirable over time. A letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi provides two such criteria. Bahá’í electoral rules and norms should facilitate the replacement of individual representatives who perform badly or unethically in office and the improvement, between elections, of the quality of the individuals serving on the Assembly:

The elections, especially when annual, give the community a good opportunity to remedy any defect or imperfection from which the Assembly may suffer as a result of the actions of its members. Thus a safe method has been established

---

72. In his May 8, 1947, letter to the NSA of India, Burma, and Pakistan, in Dawn of a New Day 125, Shoghi Effendi says that “the Hindu, the Moslem, the Burmese and Zoroastrian believers must jointly, unitedly, and effectively participate. The minority elements in these ever-expanding communities must be continually stimulated, encouraged, trained and in some cases, as when an equal number of ballots have been cast in an election, given priority, in order to reinforce the representative character of Bahá’í institutions.” See also Shoghi Effendi, Advent of Divine Justice 35.

73. “He was also pleased to see that these changes [to the membership of the NSA] involved more younger people being on the National Spiritual Assembly” (Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual, May 21, 1946, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 2, no. 1449). [Page 38]The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Botswana, 1998. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Community.

whereby the quality of membership in Bahá’í Assemblies can be continually raised and improved.74

(4) But the quality of an Assembly, as we have seen, is dependent not just on the qualifications of the individuals who comprise it; it is also dependent on how those individuals complement one another collectively. Electoral rules and norms can also affect how this collective nature of an Assembly changes over time. Shoghi Effendi provides two criteria under this category: that there be improvement in the collective quality of the Assembly and that there be turnover, for the sake of change itself, in the membership of the NSA from year to year.

The criterion of improvement comes from the passage cited in the third criterion just above: To say that "the quality of membership in Bahá’í Assemblies" ought to be "continually raised and improved" is also to say that the collective nature of the Assembly (and not just the qualifications of individuals considered separately) ought to be improved over time.

The criterion of turnover is explicitly mentioned in a letter written on Shoghi Effendi's behalf: "He was very happy to see that changes had been made in the membership of the National Spiritual Assembly this year, not from any reasons of personality, but because change itself is good and brings a fresh outlook into the dis-

74. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to two individuals, November 15, 1935, in Compila- tion of Compilations vol. 2, no. 1364 (emphasis added). [Page 39]

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS?

cussions of any Assembly." The italicized part of the statement makes it quite clear that it is not the qualifications of particular individuals that are at stake; rather, it is the collective nature of the Assembly as a whole over time. Two other letters written on Shoghi Effendi’s behalf, however, point to two restrictions on this criterion of turnover. One letter indicates that turnover should not be achieved by sacrificing the quality of the membership of the NSA. (In other words, the criterion of turnover is subordinate to the first and second types of criteria.)76 Another letter written on his behalf reiterates that turnover should not be achieved by institutional rules (such as the imposition of term limits) that force turnover by restricting the freedom of voters or by ignoring how delegates have actually voted:

Shoghi Effendi has never said that the members of the National Assembly have to be renewed partially every year. The important thing is that they should be properly elected. It would be nice if there should be new members elected, for new blood always adds to the energy of the group and will keep up their spirit. But this depends entirely upon the will of the delegates as represented in the result of their voting."

As we have seen, the justification for avoiding mechanisms such as term-limits, which force change over repeated elections, is the noninstrumental value of respect for the freedom of persons to vote for whomever their conscience moves them.

(5) The first four types of criteria we have considered (qualifications of individual NSA members, the nature of the collective body, changes in individual membership that would be desirable over time, and changes in the collective make-up of the Assembly over time) tell us what makes electoral outcomes desirable, according to Bahá’í values, independent of any reference to the judgment or views of voters them- selves. But the fact that elections are held at all indicates that another set of criteria is also relevant for judging electoral outcomes: Electoral outcomes must be sensitive to the views of voters. The views of voters themselves matter. The reference to the "will of the delegates" in the passage above already makes this clear. And we have already seen that making sure that voting outcomes are sensitive to voters’ views is noninstrumentally valuable: Sensitivity expresses respect for the freedom (and conscience) of the person. But sensitivity can also be valuable on purely instrumental

75. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual, May 21, 1946, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 2, no. 1449 (emphasis added).

76. "There is no objection in principle to an Assembly being re-elected, whether in toto or in part, provided the members are considered to be well qualified for that post. It is individual merit that counts. Novelty or the mere act of renewal of elections are purely secondary considerations. Changes in Assembly membership should be welcome so far as they do not prejudice the quality of much membership" (Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Sanctity and Nature of Bahá’í Elections no. 16 (emphasis added).

77. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual, April, 27, 1932, in Lights of Guidance no. 63 (emphasis added). I have not been able to consult the letter to which it is a response, but I suspect that it is responding to proposals such as the one discussed by van den Hoonaard, Origins of the Bahá’í Community of Canada 158 (quoted in footnote 37 on page 20). [Page 40]grounds: Making sure that outcomes reflect the views of voters can be an efficient means for making sure that the best representatives are selected to office. For example, elections may be a better method than, say, lotteries or unilateral decrees for ensuring that loyal or selfless persons be selected as representatives. (Or the sensitivity of outcomes may help legitimate representative institutions in the eyes of the general community.) The point is that the sensitivity of voting outcomes to voters’ views is valuable not only for noninstrumental reasons, but for instrumental ones as well.

Voters may, of course, have views (a) about which individuals are most qualified to serve on an NSA, (b) about what the collective nature of the NSA should be, (c) about how the individual membership of the NSA should change over time, and (d) about how the collective nature of the NSA should change over time. Outcomes can thus be sensitive to voters’ judgments in four ways that parallel the first four types of criteria we already considered.

(a) For example, assume that Canadian voters believe that their national representatives should each have a deep acquaintance of the multicultural and bilingual makeup of their country. In that case, electoral rules and norms are valuable to the extent that electoral outcomes help voters elect individual representatives with such knowledge.

(b) Normally voters will also have specific views about what the collective composition of their NSA should look like. For example, they may prefer that one candidate who is quirky and creative be elected to office only if some other candidate who is down-to-earth and meticulous is also elected. This judgment may be based on voters’ knowledge that the qualities of these two individuals would only be strengths for the NSA if combined with and balanced by each other. Elections should be sensitive to such views about the combination of individuals too. [Page 41](c) Recall that, according to the third type of criteria, replacing an NSA member who is guilty of unethical conduct is valuable even if voters did not actually wish his or her replacement (they may not be aware of his or her misconduct, for example). But the criterion of sensitivity requires that electoral rules and norms also facilitate the replacement of a particular representative when voters believe that such change is desirable. A voter may believe, for example, that a particular NSA member ought to be replaced because of some misconduct. Or perhaps the voter simply believes that times and circumstances have changed and that the specific qualities the individual would bring to the NSA are no longer the assets that they once were.

(d) Again, a voter may also have views, not about the replacement of a particular individual but about how the collective membership as a whole ought to change over time. Thus the electoral rules and norms of Bahá’í elections ought to be sensitive to voters' judgments about the need for turnover as well. This desire for turnover would reflect a judgment about desirable changes in the collective composition of the NSA and not necessarily reflect a judgment that any particular individual member ought to be replaced.

The selection function of Bahá’í elections, to which these five types of criteria apply, returns us once again to the question of the means by which the desired outcomes may be achieved. For example, how do Bahá’í elections ensure that individual representatives are loyal, that NSAs are diverse, that individuals can be replaced, that turnover occurs, and that outcomes are sensitive to voters' views? Recall that the selection function of Bahá’í elections provides instrumental reasons in favor of allowing campaigning and reference to personalities before elections: Talking about specific candidates would provide information that would help voters elect representatives who are, for example, loyal, devoted, intellectually well-trained, experienced, and so on and would replace unqualified representatives or improve the quality of membership. Since this method of providing information, however, violates the spiritual dignity of the electoral process and, therefore, is ruled out for noninstrumental reasons, some other means of providing the information is required to secure the desired outcomes.

Shoghi Effendi suggests two such instruments for providing information to voters: The first is a norm of institutional transparency incumbent on institutions. The second is a norm of universal participation incumbent on individuals. Unlike campaigning, each of these instruments for providing information is divorced from the electoral process itself. They center, instead, on the day-to-day affairs of the community throughout the year. Shoghi Effendi refers to the norm of institutional transparency as the NSA's "duty to purge once for all their deliberations and the general conduct of their affairs from that air of self-contained aloofness, from the suspicion of secrecy, [and] the stifling atmosphere of dictatorial assertiveness." The NSA has the duty "not to dictate, but to consult, and consult not only among themselves, but as much as possible with the friends whom they represent" and must, [Page 42]at all times, avoid the spirit of exclusiveness, the atmosphere of secrecy, free themselves from a domineering attitude, and banish all forms of prejudice and passion from their deliberations. They should, within the limits of wise discretion, take the friends into their confidence, acquaint them with their plans, share with them their problems and anxieties, and seek their advice and counsel.

The norm of universal participation, and the duties it places on each individual, is the second means for obtaining information about candidates. According to this

78. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís in America, October 18, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 143; Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís in America, February 23, 1924, in Bahá’í Administration 64. The norm of institutional transparency is repeatedly emphasized by Shoghi Effendi. See, for example, Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, January 29, 1925, in Bahá’í Administration 79: "Banishing every vestige of secrecy, of undue reticence, of dictatorial aloofness, from their midst, they should radiantly and abundantly unfold to the eyes of the delegates, by whom they are elected, their plans, their hopes, and their cares." However, this norm of institutional transparency is to be enforced, and its appropriate scope determined, by the NSA itself; transparency is a duty of the NSA, but this duty is not correlative to any right that any particular individual has to the NSA's transparency. In other words, its satisfaction is not owed by legal right to any individual. See a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to a member of the NSA of Australia and New Zealand, June 19, 1935, in Letters from the Guardian to Australia and New Zealand: 1923-1957 (Sydney, National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Australia, 1970, reprinted 1971) 9. This would not, it seems to me, prevent the NSA itself from setting up institutional mechanisms to facilitate its own transparency; it simply means that the NSA would always reserve ultimate jurisdiction, at the national level, over such mechanisms. [Page 43]norm, the individual has the duty to be actively involved in community affairs throughout the year in order to "develop a true social consciousness" and "become an intelligent, well-informed and responsible elector."

4.2 THE LEGITIMATION FUNCTION

National Bahá’í electoral institutions and norms are also instrumentally valuable insofar as they promote another goal: legitimating national Bahá’í governing bodies in the eyes of the community at large. Indeed, enhancing the authority of the NSA is one of the major preoccupations of Shoghi Effendi's communications concerning administrative matters with the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in the 1920s and 1930s. Referring to this goal, Shoghi Effendi, in two letters, says that "among the most outstanding and sacred duties" of elected representatives "are those that require them to win by every means in their power the confidence and affection of those whom it is their privilege to serve," indeed, "not only the confidence and the genuine support and respect of those whom they serve, but also their esteem and real affection."" It is true that in these letters Shoghi Effendi emphasizes a non- authoritarian, transparent, and consultative or deliberative mode of governance- rather than democratic election procedures-as the means for winning the confidence of the community. But in a 1937 cablegram to the National Convention of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, he makes clear that the process of electing national representatives, and widespread participation in that process, is also de- signed to shore up the legitimacy and authority of the NSA.2

The most obvious way that democratic electoral institutions serve to legitimate governing bodies in the eyes of the community is by providing the members of the community the opportunity to choose, in some sense, their own representatives.

79. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to [Adelbert] Mühlschlegel, [a member of the NSA of the Bahá’ís of Germany and Austria], February 4, 1935, in Light of Divine Guidance vol. 1, 68. The letter states that it is incumbent upon each person "to become an active and well-informed member of the Bahá’í community in which he lives. To be able to make a wise choice at the election time, it is necessary for him to be in close and continued contact with all local activities. . . and to fully and whole-heartedly participate in the affairs of the local as well as national committees and assemblies in his country. It is only in this way that a believer can develop a true social consciousness and acquire a true sense of responsibility in matters affecting the interests of the Cause. Bahá’í community life thus makes it a duty for every loyal and faithful believer to become an intelligent, well-informed and responsible elector, and also gives him the opportunity of raising himself to such a station." See also Shoghi Effendi, letter to a Local Spiritual Assembly, May 14, 1927, in Compilation of Compilations vol. 1, no. 709.

80. See Bramson-Lerche, "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá’í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936" 255-300.

81. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, October 18, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 143; and Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís in America, February 23, 1924, in Bahá’í Administration 64.

82. Shoghi Effendi, cablegram, November 19, 1937, in This Decisive Hour no. 33.1: "ELECTION OF HUNDRED SEVENTY-ONE DELEGATES FOR THIS YEAR'S AND FUTURE CONVENTIONS ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL... APPEAL DELEGATES UNABLE ATTEND IN PERSON EXERCISE CONSCIENTIOUSLY BALLOT RIGHT BY MAIL. INCREASED PARTICIPATION BY BELIEVERS IN CONVENTION PROCEEDINGS REINFORCES AUTHORITY AND BROADENS BASIS BODY NATIONAL REPRESENTATIVES AND KNITS THEM CLOSER TO ENTIRE BODY ELECTORATE." [Page 44]Thus the very fact of elections helps to fulfill the legitimation function. Yet to be truly effective, these elections must be seen as consistent with fundamental Bahá’í values. Institutional rules and informal norms that respect the dignity of the (and, concomitantly, make electoral outcomes sensitive to the judgments of voters and ensure the spiritual character of elections); that express unity and solidarity; and that are just and fair (and so help aggregate votes in an equal, fair, and rational way) are all primarily justified for noninstrumental reasons. But the community's perception that their electoral institutions respect dignity, express unity, and are just and fair will be valuable on instrumental grounds: to help legitimate the bodies elected and so enhance their authority in the eyes of the community. Insofar as actually respecting dignity, expressing unity, and being just and fair help create the perception that institutional rules and informal norms do respect these values, these rules and norms are not solely valuable noninstrumentally but also instrumentally.

THE EDUCATIVE FUNCTION

A third kind of outcome according to which Bahá’í electoral rules and norms can be instrumentally justified and evaluated is the cultivation of virtues among individual participants. The idea that participation in public affairs could play an educative function, particularly by fostering public-spirited virtues among the members of society, has a long pedigree in democratic political thought." In the Bahá’í context, the educative function hinges on the spiritual character of the election process. This spiritual character is thus designed not only to respect the inherent dignity of each person but also to help foster virtues in each participant. This is implicit in the way that the responsibility to participate can only be discharged by voting in the spirit of "selflessness and detachment" and "without the least trace of passion and prejudice, and irrespective of any material consideration." A letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to a member of the NSA of Germany and

83. The concern with perceptions about Bahá’í institutions is apparent in Shoghi Effendi's recommendation that the NSA not just avoid secrecy but the "suspicion of secrecy" (Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, October 18, 1927, in Bahá’í Administration 143) [emphasis added]. A letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to a member of the NSA of Australia and New Zealand, June 19, 1935, expresses the same concern; it recommends that the NSA "avoid giving the impression that the assembly is working in an atmosphere of complete secrecy, and that it is motivated by dictatorial motives" (Letters from the Guardian to Australia and New Zealand 9 [emphasis added].

84. See, for example, Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. George Lawrence, ed. J. P. Mayer (New York: Harper, 1966), and John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, ed. Currin V. Shields (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing, 1958), especially 54, 214. For a survey, see Jane Mansbridge, "On the Idea that Participation Makes Better Citizens," in Stephen L. Elkin and Karol Edward Soltan, eds., Citizen Competence and Democratic Institutions (University Park, PA, USA: Pennsylvania State UP, 1999).

85. Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís throughout America, February 23, 1924, in Bahá’í Administration 65; Shoghi Effendi, letter to the delegates and visitors to the Bahá’í Convention, Green Acre, Maine, USA, in Bahá’í Administration 88. Cf. Shoghi Effendi, in Sanctity and Nature of Bahá’í Elections no. 1: "On the election day, the friends must whole-heartedly participate in the elections, in unity and amity, turning their hearts to God, detached from all things but Him...." [Page 45]Austria adds to the reasons for banning nominations the instrumental consideration that such a ban would help foster the "self-development" of participants. This further reason for banning nominations is made explicitly in terms of the educative function of Bahá’í elections: "Bahá’í electoral procedures and methods have, indeed, for one of their essential purposes the development in every believer of the spirit of responsibility."86

4.4 THE INTEGRATION FUNCTION

Bahá’í electoral rules and norms can also be instrumentally justified and evaluated according to their contribution to a fourth outcome: the unity and solidarity of the members of the community as a whole. Shoghi Effendi advocates at least one institutional rule in light of Bahá’í elections' integrative function of fostering solidarity within the community as a whole: a rule that ties be broken in favor of minority groups. (Recall that he also justifies the rule as a means for securing the representativeness of the NSA).

If any discrimination is at all to be tolerated, it should be a discrimination not against, but rather in favor of the minority, be it racial or otherwise. Unlike the nations and peoples of the earth, be they of the East or of the West, democratic or authoritarian, communist or capitalist, whether belonging to the Old World or the New, who either ignore, trample upon, or extirpate, the racial, religious, or political minorities within the sphere of their jurisdiction, every organized community enlisted under the banner of Bahá’u’lláh should feel it to be its first and inescapable obligation to nurture, encourage, and safeguard every minority belonging to any faith, race, class, or nation within it. So great and vital is this principle that in such circumstances, as when an equal number of ballots have been cast in an election, or where the qualifications for any office are balanced

86. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to Dr. [Adelbert] Mühlschlegel, [a member of the NSA of the Bahá’ís of Germany and Austria], February 4, 1935, in Light of Divine Guidance vol. 1, 68. The paragraph in which the "self-development" and "spirit of responsibility" appear reads in full: "In addition to these serious dangers, the practice of nomination has the great disadvantage of killing in the believer the spirit of initiative, and of self-development. Bahá’í electoral procedures and methods have, indeed, for one of their essential purposes the development in every believer of the spirit of responsibility. By emphasizing the necessity of maintaining his fully [sic] freedom in the elections, they make it incumbent upon him to become an active and well-informed member of the Bahá’í community in which he lives. To be able to make a wise choice at the election time, it is necessary for him to be in close and continued contact with all local activities, be they teaching, administrative or otherwise, and to fully and whole-heartedly participate in the affairs of the local as well as national committees and assemblies in his country. It is only in this way that a believer can develop a true social consciousness and acquire a true sense of responsibility in matters affecting the interests of the Cause. Bahá’í community life thus makes it a duty for every loyal and faithful believer to become an intelligent, well-informed and responsible elector, and also gives him the opportunity of raising himself to such a station. And since the practice of nomination hinders the development of such qualities in the believer, and in addition leads to corruption and partisanship, it has to be entirely discarded in all Bahá’í elections."

87. This value is mentioned by Shoghi Effendi, for example, when referring to "the unique functions it [National Convention) fulfills in promoting harmony and good-will" (Shoghi Effendi, letter to the NSA of the United States and Canada, October 24, 1925, in Bahá’í Administration 91). [Page 46]as between the various races, faiths or nationalities within the community, priority should unhesitatingly be accorded the party representing the minority, and this for no other reason except to stimulate and encourage it, and afford it an opportunity to further the interests of the community.

Conclusion

Distinguishing between the distinct criteria provided by the Bahá’í writings for justifying and evaluating the formal institutional rules and informal norms of Bahá’í elections (see table 1 on pages 48-49) has at least two important benefits. The first is that it becomes clear that any particular rule or norm may have numerous reasons both for and against its adoption. Nominations, for example, may have some instrumental reasons working in their favor (since nominations may help fulfill the selection function of Bahá’í elections), but they also have many reasons against them. Indeed, Shoghi Effendi justifies the ban on nominations for at least three reasons: nominations violate respect for the freedom of each voter to vote his or her conscience; they undermine the spiritual character of elections and hence violate respect for the nobility of the person; and they undermine efforts to cultivate a spirit of responsibility in each voter.

The second benefit is that the philosophical evaluation of the normative foundations of Bahá’í elections sets the stage for a systematic research program for the study of models of Bahá’í governance. Economist John Huddleston has argued that Bahá’í models of governance aspire to provide the society at large with "an alternative model to conventional methods."89 This can only be done if there are rigorous studies of this "alternative model" that engage with the latest research in philosophy and the social sciences. This study attempts to lay the foundations for three areas of research into Bahá’í models of governance in general, and Bahá’í electoral models in particular.

(1) First, normative philosophical research: By helping to specify what is distinctive about the values that underlie Bahá’í electoral models, this essay sets the stage for normative research engaging Bahá’í philosophical thought in dialogue with, and making a distinct contribution to, moral and political philosophy more generally. It focuses our attention, in particular, on the distinct noninstrumental values that inform Bahá’í electoral practices. Future researchers may ask, for example: What contribution does the distinct Bahá’í focus on the "nobility of the person" (and the rules designed to serve it, such as the ban on nominations and campaigning) make to our understandings of traditional liberal democratic or social democratic political philosophy? How easily can the insights from Bahá’í models of governance, with their emphasis on the spiritual component of the process, be applied to secular political contexts-if at all?

(2) Second, empirical research: Once we understand the justificatory reasons for a particular institutional rule or norm in the Bahá’í model, it becomes possible to

88. Shoghi Effendi, Advent of Divine Justice 35. 89. Huddleston, "A Just System of Government," in Bahá’í Faith and Marxism 36. [Page 47]investigate how well, given current historical circumstances, the formal institutional rules and informal norms currently used in Bahá’í communities actually fulfill, in empirical practice, the values by which they are philosophically justified. This is because justificatory reasons also provide evaluative criteria.

First, we can ask how well current rules and norms serve the noninstrumental values underlying Bahá’í elections. For example, how well do current rules and norms maintain the spiritual and dignified character of the electoral process? In various cultural contexts? In comparison with other democratic electoral systems? Or, second, we can ask about instrumental values. For example, how well do current rules and norms help bring about the election of individuals who are, among other things, loyal, devoted, intellectually well-trained, experienced? How well do they help select a diverse or representative NSA membership? In comparison with other electoral systems? How well do they facilitate the replacement of inadequate representatives? How well do they help cause regular turnover in the membership of the NSA over time? How well do they help foster individual virtues or unity and solidarity among participants?

THE PHILOSOPHICAL EVALUATION OF THE NORMATIVE FOUNDATIONS OF BAHÁ’Í ELECTIONS SETS THE STAGE FOR A SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH PROGRAM FOR THE STUDY OF MODELS OF BAHÁ’Í GOVERNANCE.

Investigating such questions and others through empirical study will highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the current rules and norms used in Bahá’í elections and, in so doing, would make an important practical contribution to the continuing evolution of Bahá’í electoral practice and, more generally, to political theory and practice beyond the Bahá’í community. These empirical findings, in turn, would lay the foundations for a third program of research.

(3) Third, research into institutional design: In light of the values identified in this article and the empirical findings of future research, researchers may investigate whether any alternative rules or norms are both (a) compatible with Bahá’í values and (b) able to improve on the fulfillment of these values given current circumstances. This is precisely the kind of question that the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada was asking in the 1920s. This research could draw on the enormous progress that social scientists have made in institutional theory over the past fifty years. Further investigating these questions in light of the current experience of the Bahá’í community would be of immense value not only in practical terms for the continuing evolution of the Bahá’í community itself but also, in more general terms, for the contribution that Bahá’í thought might make to political theory and practice more generally beyond the Bahá’í community.

90. We must distinguish between what we might call "cultural" factors and "institutional" factors. Whether or not certain values are well served may either be the result of how well the individuals who participate in elections adhere to the values underlying Bahá’í electoral processes, or the result of the institutional rules themselves, or, as is most likely, both in combination. Rigorous research must help us distinguish between these distinct factors. [Page 48]

I. NONINSTRUMENTAL VALUES

A. Respect for the Inherent Dignity of the Person 1. Respect for the Freedom of the Person a) Right to participate b) Freedom to vote one's conscience (1) Can vote for any adult Bahá’í in good standing (2) Nominations banned (3) Term limits rejected (4) Reason in favor of plurality-rule voting over sequential (run-off) majority-rule voting c) Sensitivity of outcomes to voters' judgment [see item II.A.5 below]

2. Respect for the Equality of Persons a) All adult Bahá’ís eligible to vote for delegates and to be voted for as delegates and NSA members b) Elimination of discrimination c) Justice and fairness

3. Respect for the Nobility of the Person a) Individual participant responsibility (1) Sacred duty to participate/vote b) Spiritual dignity of electoral process (1) Secret ballot (2) Campaigning, canvassing, election propaganda banned (3) Coalition-, faction-, or party-formation banned (4) Nominations banned

B. Expressing the Unity and Solidarity of Persons 1. Individual Participant Responsibility a) Sacred duty to participate/vote 2. Negative Campaigning and Propaganda Banned 3. Coalition-, Faction-, or Party-Formation Banned

C. Justice and Fairness 1. Nonarbitrary Representation of Voters: Equal, Fair, Rational a) Equal number of votes per voter b) Proportional representation 2. Nonarbitrary Aggregation of Votes: Equal, Fair, Rational a) Nondictatorship b) Monotonicity c) Pareto-optimality d) Condorcet criterion e) Sen's a and B+ f) Independence from irrelevant alternatives [Page 49]DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS WITHOUT CAMPAIGNS? II. INSTRUMENTAL VALUES A. Selecting the Best Representatives (Selection Function) 1. Qualifications of Individuals a) Loyalty, devotion, intellectual training, mature experience, sincerity, ability, and competence (1) Norm of institutional transparency (2) Norm of universal participation 2. Collective Nature of NSA as a Whole a) Diversity of membership b) Representativeness of membership c) Presence of minority groups [subject to II.A.1.a)] (1) Ties to be broken in favor of minority d) Presence of younger members 3. Replacement of Individuals over Time a) Replacement of unqualified representatives (e.g., those who have performed badly or unethically) (1) Norm of institutional transparency (2) Norm of universal participation b) Improvement of quality of individual membership (1) Norm of institutional transparency (2) Norm of universal participation 4. Change in Collective Nature of NSA as a Whole a) Improvement of quality of collective membership (1) Norm of institutional transparency (2) Norm of universal participation b) Turn-over [subject to criteria II.A.1, II.A.2, and II.A.5] 5. Sensitivity of Outcomes to Voters' Judgment a) Sensitivity to views about individual candidates b) Sensitivity to views about the collective composition of the NSA c) Sensitivity to views about individuals who should be replaced between elections d) Sensitivity to views about the need for turnover B. Legitimating Bahá'í Administrative Institutions (Legitimation Function) 1. Perception that elections are consistent with Bahá'í values C. Fostering Virtues of Character (Education Function) 1. Nominations banned D. Fostering Unity and Solidarity (Integration Function) 1. Ties to be broken in favor of minority

• Specific rules and norms are in italics; National Spiritual Assembly is abbreviated

to NSA. World Order, 2005, Vol. 37, No. 1 49

[Page 51]

The Evolution of Bahá’í Elections: Correspondence between Shoghi Effendi and the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, 1927

It is well-known to students of language that the meaning of even the most simple sentence is partly dependent on the context in which it is uttered. The relationship between situational context and meaning is also relevant for written language, including religious texts. The fact that the meaning of sentences is dependent on the context in which they are uttered is why there is an entire branch of study in Islam-the science of asbáb al-nuzúl or "the occasions (that is, contexts) of revelation"-dedicated to studying the actual situation in which a particular verse was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. The study of the situational context has provided scholars valuable clues about the meanings of verses in the Qur’an.

Much of the guidance provided in the writings of Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith from 1921 to 1957, arrived in the form of letters written to individuals or communities in response to specific questions, requests, or issues. These letters provide the Bahá’í community an ongoing source of guidance and information on a vast array of topics: from scriptural interpretation to Bahá’í administration, from personal conduct to world affairs, from Bahá’í history to the promulgation of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings. Yet, to date, the most widely available publications of the Shoghi Effendi's letters give readers few clues about the specific questions or issues to which a given letter was a response.

The World Order Editorial Board is pleased to share with its readers extracts from four letters, published here for the first time, that shed considerable light on one of Shoghi Effendi’s most important letters concerning the nature of Bahá’í elections. All four of these letters were written to Shoghi Effendi in 1927 by the secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada. The first three of these letters are those to which Shoghi Effendi’s letter of May 27, 1927 is a direct response. The fourth is the National Spiritual Assembly’s response to Shoghi Effendi’s letter. [Page 52]cation are those sections of the National Spiritual Assembly's letters that directly concern the issues, in Bahá’í models of governance, to which Shoghi Effendi's letter is addressed. The omitted sections, indicated by ellipses, con- cern unrelated information about administrative matters and specific persons. The Editorial Board hopes that publishing the four letters from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada together with Shoghi Effendi's response will considerably enrich our readers' under- standing of his letter.

THE EDITORS

APRIL 15, 1927

Shoghi Effendi, Haifa, Palestine.

Dear Bahá’í brother:

I would refer especially to the enclosed copy of the Declaration of Trust adopted at this meeting. This has brought us all a profound feeling of relief and the confidence that by creating this legal body we have consolidated and strength- ened the power of action of the American Bahá’ís. We pray that the work of the National Assembly will be imbued with a more spiritual character as the consequence of this perfection of the material form. We are particularly happy that men of such character and experience as Roy Wilhelm, Allen McDaniel and Carl Scheffler were available to serve as trustees to hold title to the various Bahá’í property.

1. During the April 2-4, 1927, portion of its final meeting of the Bahá’í year, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada (hereafter NSA) received from Alfred Lunt, an attorney and a member of the NSA's Legal Committee, a draft of the Declaration of Trust. The NSA made some changes and adopted the document on April 4, 1927. However, during the NSA's October 22-23, 1927, meeting, Lunt, who had been elected to the NSA during the 1927 National Bahá’í Convention held in Montreal, April 29-May 3, suggested that it would be better not to have the Declaration of Trust approved either in New York (because the courts in the state did not fully recognize the legal status of such a voluntary organization) or in Canada. The NSA voted to have the Declaration of Trust approved in Boston on October 22, 1927. In 1913 Lunt had been elected to the Bahá’í Temple Unity, the nationally elected Bahá’í Council that preceded the NSA, and remained a member for nine years (including three as president and three as secretary), until the body evolved into the NSA. He served on the NSA from 1922 to 1925 and from 1927 to 1937. He was secretary of the NSA from 1922 to 1924 and from 1930 to 1932, thus being the NSA's only other secretary beside Horace Holley until 1959. Lunt also served as assistant treasurer and vice-chair.-ED.

2. Roy C. Wilhelm, Allen B. McDaniel, and Carl Scheffler, members of the NSA in 1927, were to be trustees holding title to the land for the Bahá’í House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, on behalf of the [Page 53]The indenture of trust is in process of revision but we expect to approve this in final form before the Convention opens.' I shall bring to our next session at completed draft of proposed by-laws which, if adopted, will complete this aspect of our work. When the by-laws are adopted, it seems likely that the Declaration of Trust and the by-laws, and possibly also the Indenture of Trust appointing the three Trustees, will be published in pamphlet form and distributed throughout the body of believers. We would also send a number of copies to you in case you wish to distribute them to national or local Assemblies in other countries.

Faithfully yours, Secretary³

NSA, which had not yet completed the process of declaring itself a trust. Wilhelm, who was in the import business, served for eight years on the Bahá’í Temple Unity and on the NSA from 1922 to 1946. He was vice-chair of the NSA in 1925 and 1927 and treasurer from 1930 to 1945. McDaniel served on the NSA from 1925 to 1946; he was chair for a number of years (including 1927 when the Declaration of Trust was adopted) and later vice-chair. Scheffler, a commercial artist and art director in public and parochial schools in suburbs north of Chicago, served on the NSA from 1925 to 1938 and held office first as treasurer, then as financial secretary, and finally as vice-chair.―-ED.

3. The 1927 National Bahá’í Convention was held in Montreal, April 29-May 3. The Indenture of Trust was the legal document transferring title to the land for the Bahá’í House of Worship in Wilmette from the Bahá’í Temple Unity to Trustees who would hold title to the land on behalf of the NSA. The document went through a number of drafts, and by the time it was adopted on October 6, 1928 (and recorded with Cook County, Illinois, in November 1928), the NSA had completed its Declaration of Trust and By-Laws, and thus all nine members of the NSA could serve as Trustees under the Indenture of Trust, not just Wilhelm, McDaniel, and Scheffler.-ED.

4. The NSA adjourned the April 2-4, 1927, portion of its meeting and reconvened on April 28 in Montreal, one day before the 1927 National Bahá’í Convention began. During the Montreal portion of the meeting, the NSA received a draft of the By-Laws of the NSA, made some changes, and adopted them. The Indenture of Trust was not approved until 1928, by which time all nine members of the NSA served as Trustees for the Bahá’í House of Worship property. The term "believers" refers to the Bahá’ís.-ED.

5. The letter to Shoghi Effendi was written by Horace Holley (1877-1960), the Secretary of the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in 1927. He served in that position from 1924 to 1930 and from 1932 through 1959. Holley majored in literature at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, after which he traveled and studied in Europe. After working in sales promotion in a publishing house and as chief of the copy department in an advertising agency, both in New York, he gave up secular work to devote the rest of his life to Bahá’í activities. A prolific writer and speaker, he wrote and edited for the NSA, including The Bahá’í World volumes; contributed to the expansion of Bahá’í literature by publishing books, articles, and pamphlets as an individual; provided titles and subheads for volumes of Shoghi Effendi’s letters; and was one of Shoghi Effendi’s constant collaborators.-ED. [Page 54]

THE EVOLUTION OF BAHÁ’Í ELECTIONS

May 6, 1927 Shoghi Effendi, Haifa, Palestine. Dear Bahá’í brother:

The Convention at Montreal was very different from that held at San Francisco a year ago. At the previous Convention, the delegates adopted the procedure as to the election and other matters as suggested by the out-going National Assembly without any question, with the result that full consideration could be given to committee reports and other constructive activities. This year, the agenda drawn up by the out-going National Assembly was practically put aside and the details of the election were all deliberated upon the floor. As only thirty-three delegates were present, the decisions effecting [sic] the entire body of delegates were made by a majority of thirty-three, or seventeen delegates or more. The inevitable consequences of the need to discuss every minor detail was to turn the minds of the delegates away from the results to be achieved and concentrate them upon means and methods of procedure. This condition however did not continue throughout the five days of the Convention, but the minor irritations were truly swept away by the spirit of the Cause,

In view of the conditions of the world, and in the face of a national catastrophe in this country which already seems the greatest disaster of its kind in our history, we feel very strongly that ways and means must be found of settling once and for all these questions of internal procedure so that we can make collective contact with the essential problem of establishing the Cause. What is required is an established

6. In 1926 the National Convention for the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada was held in San Francisco, California, April 29-May 2. In 1927 the National Convention was held in Montreal, Canada, April 29-May 3.-ED.

7. For electing the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada, Shoghi Effendi authorized the election of ninety-five delegates for America, including the Pacific Islands (see Shoghi Effendi, letter to the Bahá’ís in America, Great Britain, Germany, France, Switzerland, Italy, Japan, and Australasia, March 12, 1923, in Bahá’í Administration: Selected Messages 1922-1932, 1974 ed. [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974, 1988 printing] 39-40). In 1927 only ninety-one delegates were elected (the Spiritual Assemblies of the Bahá’ís of Cincinnati, Ohio; Miami, Florida; Montclair, New Jersery; and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, did not send in their official delegate registration forms). Of the ninety-one delegates, only thirty-two answered the roll call at the National Convention. The other delegates participated by wire from meetings in their home cities.-ED.

8. The reference is probably to the Great Mississippi Flood, the largest flood recorded in the lower Mississippi Valley and the most destructive river flood in U.S. history to that point. It began in the summer of 1926 with heavy rains in the central Mississippi basin, swelling tributaries in Kansas and Iowa to capacity by September. On January 1, 1927, the Cumberland River at Nashville, Tennessee, topped levees at over fifty-six feet. Ultimately the Mississippi River broke the levees in 145 places, flooded 27,000 square miles, inundating the area to the depth of thirty feet, causing more than $400 million in damages, and killing 246 people in seven states. By May 1927, when Holley wrote to Shoghi Effendi, the Mississippi River below Memphis, Tennessee, reached a width of sixty miles.―ED. [Page 55]procedure which embodies essential Baha’i principles, just as the decision that the number to be elected to a Spiritual Assembly is nine. Had this number been left open at the time the Master ascended, we would probably not yet have arrived at a number satisfactory to all the friends." In the same way, it seems to me that the general principles of Baha’i administration already contain all the elements necessary for the determination of those questions which were raised in Montreal.

At the last meeting of the out-going National Assembly, we adopted a set of by-laws to accompany the Declaration of Trust transmitted to you with the minutes of our meeting of April 2, 3, and 4th. 10 Our vote was that the by-laws as presented and revised after consultation at the meeting should be turned over to Mountfort for the final draft. 11 It is my feeling that these by-laws, formulating, as they do, the fixed procedure for all the administrative activities of the Cause, in the United States and Canada, should be referred to you for your approval before they are sent to the delegates of this Convention and the local Spiritual Assemblies for their formal ratification. The latter action will be taken in order that all the friends may become part of the decision to adopt this legal form.

The present National Assembly realizes that one of its internal tasks this year is to find ways and means of assisting the delegates to become more of a continuous consultative body throughout the year. 12 Possibly we can assemble at least part of the delegates in some convenient city next winter for purposes of deliberation upon the essential problems of teaching and promoting the Plan of Unified Action. 13

9. The Master is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh’s son and the authorized interpreter of His writings. He passed away on November 28, 1921.—ED. 10. The last meeting of the outgoing 1926-27 NSA had two sessions: one held on April 2-4 in New York; the NSA adjourned that part of the meeting and reconvened in Montreal on April 28, 1927, the day before the 1927 National Bahá’í Convention began. 11. Mountfort Mills, an attorney, served on the Bahai Temple Unity for five years and on the NSA in 1922-23, from 1924 to 1927, and from 1935 to 1938, frequently as chair.—ED. 12. See Loni Bramson-Lerche’s discussion of the Bahá’ís in the United States and Canada initially considering the National Convention as a year-round body ("Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá’í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936," in Studies in Bábi and Bahá’í History: Volume One, ed. Moojan Momen [Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1982] 279, 282-84).—ED. 13. "A Plan of Unified Action to Spread the Baha’i Cause Throughout the United States and Canada (January 1, 1926-December 31, 1928)" was a three-year plan. Its objectives were "to unify the efforts and enlarge the numbers of the Cause in North America, penetrate the consciousness of the public with the spirit of Baha’u’llah, and, by the end of the three years at most, accumulate, in response to the request of Shoghi Effendi, a fund of $400,000.00 to construct the first unit of the superstructure of the Mashriqu’l-Adkhar [lit., the Dawning Place of the Praise of God, or a Bahá’í temple] at Wilmette, Illinois." Based on recommendations from delegates to the National Bahá’í Convention and on a study of Shoghi Effendi’s communications since 1921, the Plan received Shoghi Effendi’s endorsement together with a monthly contribution to the Temple Fund. By May 1927, when Holley wrote to Shoghi Effendi, the Temple Fund had not grown as rapidly as had been hoped. At the end of the Plan of Unified Action in December 1928, the monetary goal had still not been reached, but the efforts of the Bahá’ís had become more focused and unified and had helped strengthen the North American Bahá’í community. A second Plan of Unified Action, also a three-year plan, was launched in 1931, both plans being precursors of a series of international plans that will continue at least until 2021. See Bruce W. Whitmore, The Dawning Place: The Building of a Temple, the Forging of the North American Bahá’í Community (Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1984) 129-31, 136-38, 158-59.—ED. [Page 56]

THE EVOLUTION OF BAHÁ’Í ELECTIONS

Although it was somewhat disconcerting to find that the Convention plans adopted by the National Assembly were subject to such questioning, nevertheless, the most important condition which became manifest at the Convention was the underlying spirit which eventually proved stronger than any individual or group. The present National Spiritual Assembly has a membership which, in personal character and past history, seems more thoroughly representative of the general body of the believers than any Assembly of recent years.

The Convention minutes will be gone over by Mr. Louis Gregory, Convention Secretary, as soon as possible and one copy transmitted to you."

It is our prayer that your message to the in-coming National Spiritual Assembly may be fully realized during the coming year.

Faithfully yours, Secretary

May 9, 1927. Shoghi Effendi, Haifa, Palestine.

Dear Bahá’í brother:

In sending you the enclosed minutes, I feel I should state a little more definitely what I meant in my last letter about the need to establish a procedure for the National Convention.

The two questions which caused the most deliberation were first, whether nominations should be made in advance of electing the members of the in-coming National Assembly; and, second, how the majority vote should be determined. The view was advanced that we should consider the total number of 95 delegates as the number on which to base the majority required for election; it was also advanced

14. Louis G. Gregory, a member of the NSA, had been elected permanent secretary of the National Convention. The son of slaves, Gregory received a law degree from Howard University in 1902 and practiced law in Washington, D.C., until 1917. After becoming a Bahá’í in 1909, he served tirelessly as a Bahá’í administrator, lecturer, writer, and proponent of race unity. The first African American to be elected to the Bahá’í national governing council, he served on the Bahá’í Temple Unity for two years and on the NSA for fourteen years (1922-24, 1927-32, and 1939-46), during which time he became its first recording secretary. As a member of the NSA's Legal Committee, he helped draft its Declaration of Trust and By-Laws. For his biography, see Gayle Morrison, To Move the World: Louis G. Gregory and the Advancement of Racial Unity in America, foreword by Glenford E. Mitchell (Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1982, 1995 printing).-ED.

15. Horace Holley, Secretary of the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada.-ED. [Page 57]that inasmuch as three Assemblies did not elect delegates, the actual number of delegates participating in the elections was 91 and that, consequently, the majority should be based upon 91; the delegates present, however, voted that the majority should be based upon the number of votes actually cast, although it was pointed out that this might mean the election of one or more delegates by a majority representing less than half the number of delegates actually elected, as some of the absent delegates might be absent from their cities or otherwise prevented from voting.

In the matter of nominations, the practise has been to receive as many nominations as those present desire to make, the names of the nominees being written on a blackboard in view of the delegates. In connection with this practise, some of the friends thought it would only be fair to have the absent delegates also given the privilege of making advance nominations. Some of the friends expressed the opinion that this practise tends to bring the Bahá’í elections down to the level of human personality and that the delegates should vote without any nominations at all. Similarly, we have had the practise of adding to the telegrams sent to the absent delegates announcing the result of each ballot, the names of the nine or more believers who received the next highest number of votes, to show the delegates the relative number of ballots received by those not elected. This practise was also questioned by some, who considered that it would be preferable to announce to all the delegates only the names of those actually elected on each ballot. If these matters can be clarified by you before the next national Convention, all the friends appreciate that the elections will proceed under more direct spiritual guidance, and the Convention freed for more true consultation. My hope that the publication of committee reports in the April News Letter" in advance of the Convention would enable the delegates to proceed to constructive consultation was not realized, and at present I seriously question whether the friends have reached the point where

16. This view, that the practice of nominations is inappropriate in Bahá’í elections, may have found support in the precedent set by Bahá’í elections conducted without nominations as early as 1906 and possibly as early as 1901. The Chicago Bahá’ís elected their community governing body (the forerunner of their local Spiritual Assembly) in September 1906 using a process with no nominations, no campaigning, and no discussion of names. In the weeks before the election, weekly notices were given to the Chicago Bahá’ís, some of whom said special prayers for guidance. As the election approached, lists of the persons eligible for election were distributed, provisions were made for absentee ballots, and the Bahá’ís as a group studied the Bahá’í sacred scriptures and correspondence about the body to be elected and qualities of its members. During the counting of the ballots the Bahá’ís read prayers and Bahá’í scripture and sang hymns. The Chicago Bahá’ís may have borrowed from the Persian Bahá’ís a voting procedure rejecting discussions of names, nominations, and straw votes. See Robert H. Stockman, The Bahá’í Faith in America: Early Expansion, 1900-1912, vol. 2 (Oxford: George Ronald, 1995), 178-79, 45-46.-ED.

17. The Bahá’í News Letter, the official news organ of the NSA, was first published in December 1924, succeeding other formats. It contained letters from Shoghi Effendi, news from the Bahá’í World Center in Haifa, letters from the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada and other NSAs around the world, national committee news and reports, and so on. In 1930 the Bahá’í News Letter became Bahá’í News.-ED. [Page 58]sufficient consideration can be given to any published material of this nature. It is my observation that the friends give much more attention to the individual who reports personally, than to the ideas set forth in the reports. This being the case, I am inclined to the view that for the present year, at least, it will be better for me to minimize my work in this direction and give more time to assisting in those efforts that lead to public meetings and other direct expression of the activities. Faithfully yours, Secretary

To the members of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada:

Dearly-beloved co-workers:

Your communications dated April 15th and May 6th and 9th have been received, with their enclosures, and carefully perused.

The Declaration of Trust, the provisions of which you have so splendidly con- ceived, and formulated with such assiduous care, marks yet another milestone on the road of progress along which you are patiently and determinedly advancing. Clear and concise in its wording, sound in principle, and complete in its affirmations of the fundamentals of Bahá’í administration, it stands in its final form as a worthy and faithful exposition of the constitutional basis of Bahá’í communities in every land, foreshadowing the final emergence of the world Bahá’í Commonwealth of the future. This document, when correlated and combined with the set of by-laws which I trust are soon forthcoming, will serve as a pattern to every National Bahá’í Assem- bly, be it in the East or in the West, which aspires to conform, pending the formation. of the First Universal House of Justice, with the spirit and letter of the world-order ushered in by Bahá’u’lláh.

I eagerly await the receipt of the complete set of the contemplated by-laws, the purpose of which should be to supplement the provisions, clarify the purpose, and explain more fully the working of the principle underlying the above-mentioned Declaration. I shall, after having given it my close and personal consideration, transmit it to you, in order that you may submit it to the local Spiritual Assemblies, who in turn will endeavor to secure its final ratification by the body of the recognized

18. Horace Holley, Secretary of the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada.—ED. 19. Reprinted from Shoghi Effendi, Bahá’í Administration 134-37.-ED. 20. See the three letters on pages 52-58 from the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada to Shoghi Effendi.-ED. [Page 59]

THE EVOLUTION OF BAHÁ’Í ELECTIONS

believers throughout the United States and Canada. I would urge you to insert the Text of the Declaration, the complete set of the by-laws, and the accompanying Indenture of Trust, all combined, in the next issue of the Bahá’í Year Book," that sympathizers and believers alike in every land may obtain a clear and correct vision of the preliminary framework of that complete system of world administration implicit in the Teachings of Bahá’u’lláh.

In connection with the best and most practical methods of procedure to be adopted for the election of the Bahá’í Spiritual Assemblies, I feel that in view of the fact that definite and detailed regulations defining the manner and character of Bahá’í elections have neither been expressly revealed by Bahá’u’lláh nor laid down in the Will and Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, it devolves upon the members of the Universal House of Justice to formulate and apply such system of laws as would be in conformity with the essentials and requisites expressly provided by the Author and Interpreter of the Faith for the conduct of Bahá’í administration.22 I have consequently refrained from establishing a settled and uniform procedure for the election of the Assemblies of the East and the West, leaving them free to pursue their own methods of procedure which in most cases had been instituted and practiced during the last two decades of the life of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.

The general practice prevailing throughout the East is the one based upon the principle of plurality rather than absolute majority, whereby those candidates that have obtained the highest number of votes, irrespective of the fact whether they command an absolute majority of the votes cast or not, are automatically and definitely elected. It has been felt, with no little justification, that this method, admittedly disadvantageous in its disregard of the principle that requires that each elected member must secure a majority of the votes cast, does away on the other hand with the more serious disadvantage of restricting the freedom of the elector who, unhampered and unconstrained by electoral necessities, is called upon to vote for none

21. The Declaration of Trust and By-Laws were printed in The Baha’i World (Formerly: Bahá’í Year Book): A Biennial International Record, vol. 2: 1926-28, comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada (New York: Bahá’í Publishing Committee, 1928) 90-97. See also "A Model Declaration of Trust and By-Laws for a National Spiritual Assembly," in The Bahá’t World: An International Record, vol. 15: 1968-73, comp. The Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1976) 653-60; the Universal House of Justice provided the model document, based largely on the one adopted by the NSA of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in 1927, "to be followed as closely as possible by all new National Spiritual Assemblies as they became incorporated" (653). Holley suggested to Shoghi Effendi the idea of publishing a record of worldwide Bahá’í activities. The first volume appeared in 1926 under the title of Baha’i Year Book; subsequent volumes were published as The Bahá’í World.-ED.

22. Bahá’u’lláh is the Author of the Bahá’í Faith; He appointed ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, His son, the interpreter of His writings.-ED. [Page 60]

THE EVOLUTION OF BAHÁ’Í ELECTIONS

SHOGHI EFFENDI the Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith from 1921 to 1957, corresponded with the Secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada in 1927 as it struggled with pro- tocols for National Bahá’í elections and issues deal- ing with its Declaration of Trust and By-Laws for the National Spiritual Assembly. Reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í International Commu- nity.

but those whom prayer and reflection have inspired him to uphold. Moreover, the practice of nomination, so detrimental to the atmosphere of a silent and prayerful election, is viewed with mistrust inasmuch as it gives the right to the majority of a body that, in itself under the present circumstances, often constitutes a minority of all the elected delegates, to deny that God-given right of every elector to vote only in favor of those who he is conscientiously convinced are the most worthy candidates. Should this simple system be provisionally adopted, it would safeguard the spiritual principle of the unfettered freedom of the voter, who will thus preserve intact the sanctity of the choice he first made. It would avoid the inconvenience of securing advance nominations from absent delegates, and the impracticality of associating them with the assembled electors in the subsequent ballots that are often required to meet the exigencies of majority vote.

I would recommend these observations to your earnest consideration, and whatever decision you arrive at, all local Assemblies and individual believers, I am certain, will uphold, for their spiritual obligation and privilege is not only to consult freely and frequently with the National Spiritual Assembly, but to uphold as well with confidence and cheerfulness whatever is the considered verdict of their national representatives.

Wishing you success from all my heart,

Haifa, Palestine, May 27, 1927.

I am, your true brother, Shoghi. [Page 61]THE EVOLUTION OF BAHÁ'Í ELECTIONS June 21, 1927. Shoghi Effendi, Haifa, Palestine. Dear Baha'i brother: I wish to acknowledge your letter of May 27th on the subject of the Declaration of Trust and By-laws.25 At the time your letter was written you had not yet received the printed copy of the Declaration of Trust and By-laws, nor my last letter on this subject. The members of the National Assembly, and of course all the believers, are only concerned in producing a legal form in exact correspondence with the spiritual principles involved in Baha'i service. We, therefore, await with very great eagerness your final comment upon the By-laws already adopted, which we realize must be more or less tentative and subject to amendment from time to time. Your last letter reveals the possibility that Baha'i elections may in future be based upon the principle of plurality rather than majority. Unquestionably if the former method is to be adopted, it will do away with the difficulties which have arisen, especially at the last Convention, as the result of the need of the exchange of many telegrams between the Convention and absent delegates. On the other hand, the friends have felt that the principle of majority election, having the endorsement of the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Baha, is the ideal method, and the American believers are prepared to carry this out despite any present material difficulties. As stated in my last letter, we trust that whatever changes are made in the By- laws, these can be brought to our attention in such a way that all the amendments likely to be called for during the next year or two can be voted at the same time, as a continuous series of amendments would absolutely unsettle the minds and habits of the friends throughout the country. Faithfully yours, Secretary, 23. Horace Holley, Secretary of the NSA of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, is referring to the May 27, 1927, letter from Shoghi Effendi reprinted on page 58-60. The letter has been published in Bahá'í Administration 134-37.-ED. 24. 'Abdu'l-Bahá, in His Will and Testament, does not make statements about the principle of majority election, but He does discuss "unanimous" and "majority" decisions by the Universal House of Justice ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá [Wilmette, IL, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1944, 1997 printing] 19).—ED. 25. Horace Holley, Secretary of the NSA of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada.-ED. World Order, 2005, Vol. 37, No. 1 61 [Page 62]

Century of Light

A tempest, unprecedented in its violence, unpredictable in its course, catastrophic in its immediate effects.... -Shoghi Effendi

The sun overtakes the boardwalk, so do the waves which have no respect for anything. They've beaten the beach so many times they are tired of it now they lunge across splintered wood to shatter the posh houses on the other side. Quite spectacular, actually, a Northeaster churning the water at high tide, and wind ripping into my skin despite the bright sun that should not be here. No, it should be where there is no storm. We should be shrouded in gray light, in rain.

Do you have any food? a woman asks, startling me into consciousness. I had seen her before but had not heard her island accent. The contents of her life covered with bright cloth, waver upon her head. Her black skin glares in the bright sun in this mostly white town downwind from Atlantic City where immigrants and refugees risk making a living. They do not understand what happens when their children learn American, When they get in trouble at school which they never did wherever in the world they came from. I leave the boardwalk for a convenience store and return with a sandwich and soup for this woman from another world, this woman who probably thought her life would become a better life. [Page 63]Her eyes whip into my eyes, remove all pity. She reaches for the bag and turns away. The wind blows harder. I fear it will knock her over. The waves consume more wood. I leave for my house which I hope I can hold on to as the tides rise higher each year, reclaiming what I hoped would last forever. -PETER E. MURPHY

Copyright ©2006 Peter E. Murphy

PETER E. MURPHY, a poet and a retired teacher of English and creative writing, is a consultant to the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation's poetry program and has been an educational adviser to five PBS television series on poetry. He is the founder and director of the annual Winter Poetry & Prose Getaway, www.wintergetaway.com.

Mulberry Tissue

Embers of faith Flicker frail Fanned to flame. By grace Sustained. -BARBARA DARR

Copyright ©2006 Barbara Darr

BARBARA DARR, a collagest, sculptress, painter, and craftsperson, studied at the Whitney Art School in New Haven, Connecticut, and at the Morris Davidson School of Modern Painting in Provincetown, Massachusetts. From the 1960s through the 1980s she had many exhibits in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Despite her crippling battle with CFIDs, she continues to write poetry, help others, pursue her artwork, and cope with old age through her cartoons.

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ABSTRACT DEADLINE: AUGUST 15, 2006

Religious people throughout the ages have often been critical of "materialism." But what exactly is materialism? The term connotes several distinct concepts, at least some of which have no direct relation to one another. The term not only means different things in different fields of inquiry but has also meant different things in different historical periods. If one is to think critically and intelligently about "materialism," one must be clear about the various meanings of the term.

World Order is seeking submissions that survey critically the distinct concepts to which the term materialism refers, in such diverse fields as philosophy; theology; the social sciences, including history and economics; psychology; and Bahá’í studies. We invite, in particular, treatments of "materialism" in the following contexts:

Brief Critical Reviews:

Materialism as ontology, traditionally the view that only entities that exist are physical entities. What is the case for and against this view of the nature of reality? What is the history of this idea? What is its current status in philosophy?

Materialism as philosophy of mind, the view that the mind is a purely physical phenomenon. What is the case for and against this view of the mind? What is the history of this idea? What, if any, are its ethical implications? What is its current status in philosophy of mind and psychology?

Materialism as historical methodology, the view that economic factors, rather than ideas, are the most important causes of historical outcomes. What is the case for and against historical materialism? What is its current status in the social sciences?

Extended Essays:

Materialism as consumerist ethic, the view that the consumption of material goods is the most important component of a flourishing human life. What is the philosophical case for and against a consumerist ethic? What are the social, economic, political, spiritual, and ecological consequences of consumerism? How widespread are consumerist values and culture? What are the causes of consumerist values and culture? What are the causes and consequences of what social scientists call "post-material" values? What is the relationship between globalization and consumerism? Between capitalism and consumerism? What is the future of consumerism? Can it be contained? What role should material goods play in a human life?

Materialism as scientific explanation, the epistemological view that the only appropriate methods of scientific explanation and justification appeal to material phenomena only. What is the case for this view of science? What is the history of this idea? What is its current status among philosophers? Among scientists? Is this view of scientific explanation compatible with religion? With theism? With the Bahá’í writings? How is it different from other senses of materialism?

Materialism in the Bahá’í writings. What did ‘Abdu’l-Bahá mean by the term materialism? What does analysis of the original Persian- and Arabic-language texts of the Bahá’í writings tell us about what is meant by materialism? What did materialism mean in the nineteenth century, and how does this help us understand what ‘Abdu’l-Bahá meant by it when addressing nineteenth and early twentieth century philosophers and audiences? What did Shoghi Effendi mean by materialism? What do the Bahá’í writings say about materialism in its various senses? In what sense(s) and for what reasons are the Bahá’í writings critical of materialism?

Manuscript Submission Information:

For a copy of the World Order style sheet for preparing a manuscript (and other tips), send an e-mail to <worldorder@usbnc.org>, or write the address below.

Submissions to the journal will be subject to external blind peer review if they fall outside the expertise of the Editorial Board or upon request by the author.

Manuscripts (in Word or WordPerfect) should be sent to World Order, Dr. Betty J. Fisher, Managing Editor, 7311 Quail Springs Place NE, Albuquerque, NM 87113-1780, USA or to <worldorder@usbnc.org.

World Order has been published quarterly since 1966 by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States. [Page 66]

Forthcoming...

Derik Smith examines the maturation of the artistic genius of Robert Hayden, the first African American Consultant in Poetry to the U.S. Library of Congress

A reprint of Glenford E. Mitchell's 1976 interview with Robert Hayden on the occasion of the thirtieth anniversary of Hayden's appointment as Consultant in Poetry to the U.S. Library of Congress

Alain Locke, in three talks, discusses democracy and world citizenship (introduced by Christopher Buck)

Alexandra Humphrey reviews Building Sustainable Peace, edited by Tom Keating and W. Andy Knight

Firuz Kazemzadeh reviews Kenneth E. Bowers' God Speaks Again

Anne Gordon Perry reviews The Russo-Japanese War in Cultural Perspective, 1904-05, edited by David Wells and Sandra Wilson

Robert H. Stockman reviews In Service to the Common Good: The American Bahá’í Community's Commitment to Social Change.