Bahá’í World/Volume 15/The Bahá’í Faith and the United Nations

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[Page 358]

IV

THE Bahá’í FAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

1. THE BEGINNINGS OF Bahá’í RELATIONSHIP WITH UNITED NATIONS

IN the spring of 1947 the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada was accredited to the United Nations Office of Public Information as a national non-governmental organization qualified to be represented through an observer. A year later the eight National Spiritual Assemblies then existing were recognized collectively as an international non-governmental organization under the title “Bahá’í International

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Partial view ofskyline of New York. In the Ieftforeground is seen the United Nations complex.

Community”. These eight Assemblies were those of North America; the British Isles; Germany and Austria; Egypt and Sfidén; ‘Iráq; frén (Persia); India, Pékistén and Burma; and Australia and New Zealand. Each National Spiritual Assembly in its application established the National Assembly of the United States as its representative in relation to the United Nations.

A significant action was taken in July, 1947,

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Offices Of the Bahá’í International Community are located in the adjacent Carnegie Foundation Building at 345 East 46th Street.

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Annual Conference of Non-Govemmental Organizations held at United Nations headquarters,

New York; May 31, 1972. In the centre are seen (left to right) Dr. Kurt Waldheim, Secretary General of the United Nations, and Dr. Victor de Araujo, who served as C hairman Of the United Nations Executive C 0mmirtee ofNon-Govemmem‘al Organizations during 1971 and 1972.

when the United Nations Special Palestine Committee addressed a letter to Shoghi Effendi Rabbéni, Head of the Bahá’í Faith, resident at the Bahá’í World Centre in Haifa, requesting an expression of the Bahá’í attitude to the future of Palestine. In his reply, Shoghi Effendi made it clear that “Our aim is the establishment of universal peace in the world and our desire to see justice prevail in every domain of human society, including the domain of politics.” The Guardian also pointed out his concern that “the fact be recognized by whoever exercises sovereignty over Haifa and ‘Akká, that within this area exists the spiritual and administrative centre ofa world Faith, and that the independence of that Faith, its right to manage its international affairs from this source, the rights of Bahá’ís from any and every country of the globe to visit it as pilgrims

(enjoying the same privilege in this respect as Jews, Muslims and Christians do in regard to visiting Jerusalem) be acknowledged and permanently safeguarded.”

With this communication the Guardian enclosed a summary of the history and teachings of the Bahá’í Faith which the Bahá’ís of the United States reprinted and distributed widely.

In addition to participation in a number of international and United States regional conferences, four Bahá’í documents were formally submitted: “A Bahá’í Declaration of Human Obligations and Rights”, 1947; “A Bahá’í Statement on the Rights of Women”, 1947; and “The Work of Bahá’ís in Promotion of Human Rights”, 1948. On November 9, 1949, a letter was addressed to United Nations to formulate a method of worship acceptable for use in its future prayer building.

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THE Bahá’í WORLD

zTHEBAHAfiINTERNNHONALCOMWHHHTY ANDTHELMHTEDNATKmm

1954-1963

Adapted from the report of MILDRED R. MOTTAHEDEH, Balzd’z’ International Observer at the United Nations

THE period 1954 to 1963 was a highly eventful one, marking an increase of strength through the participation of the newly elected National and Regional Assemblies. These years witnessed as well, the desperate appeal to the United Nations to save the lives of the Persian Bahá’ís. As in previous years, the Bahá’í International Community sent delegates to many international, regional and state conferences.

In 1956 Shoghi Effendi appointed a special committee to be called into action for matters of international importance. Permanent members of the committee were Dr. Ugo R. Giachery, John Ferraby, ‘Aziz Navidi, Dr. Amin Banéni and Mildred R. Mottahedeh.

During the period of the Ten Year Crusade the Bahá’í observers accredited to the United Nations were the Hand of the Cause Ugo R. Giachery, Europe; Mrs. O. H. Blackwell, United States; and Mrs. Mildred R. Mottahedeh, International.

CHARTER REVISION CONFERENCE

When the United Nations wrote its Charter in 1945 in San Francisco, the member nations realized that changing world conditions might necessitate changes in its Charter. It therefore arranged for a Charter Revision Conference to be convened in 1955. In anticipation ofthis significant event each Bahá’í National Spiritual Assembly was solicited for suggestions which might be incorporated in Bahá’í proposals for Charter revision. Bearing these suggestions in mind, a carefully conceived pamphlet representing the first united effort of all the National Spiritual Assemblies in a non-Bahá’í field was prepared. Entitled “Proposals for Charter Revision Submitted to the United Nations by the Bahá’í International Community”, a copy ofthis pamphlet, together with a covering letter

written by the Executive Secretary, Mr. Horace Holley, was sent to each of the delegates at the Conference. In addition, copies were presented to officials of many universities, to librarians, and newspaper men. The distribution of this pamphlet is specially to be noted as a point of future reference.

Preceding the opening of the Charter Revision Conference, a “Festival of Faith” was held in the San Francisco Cow Palace. The seven Faiths represented were: Buddhist, ChristianEastern Orthodox, Orthodox, Christian-Protestant, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim and Bahá’í. Mr. Arthur L. Dahl, Jr., representing the Bahá’í Faith, read a prayer taken from the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Fifteen thousand people were present at the Festival and the programme was both televised and broadcast by several nations, as well as being widely covered by the press.

UNITED NATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS CONFERENCES

The Bahá’í International Community was represented in many international, regional and local conferences of United Nations NonGovernmental Organizations. Bahá’í delegations chosen from many racial backgrounds attended international conferences held in the New York and the Geneva headquarters of the United Nations. Their contributions to the dis“ cussions on various subjects were highly constructive and received serious attention.

On May 20—21 , 1959, at the New York headquarters, a United Nations Conference for Non-Governmental Organizations was held on the problems of technical aid given by the: United Nations and its specialized agencies ir. the social and economic fields. In connection with those in the social field, a delegation repre [Page 361]THE BAHA’I’ FAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

senting the Bahá’í International Community and the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States presented a resolution recommending that Non-Governmental Organizations endeavour to obtain endorsements of the Genocide Convention from their respective organizations. Typical of local conferences, in the United States two delegates were sent each year to the Kansas Conference organized for the Non-Governmental Organizations in that state.

THE BAHA’I APPEAL TO THE UNITED NATIONS

In May, 1955, a sudden, violent storm of persecutions against the Persian Bahá’ís broke loose—wanton murder, rape, imprisonment, desecration of Bahá’í graves, dismissal of Bahá’ís from the civil service, destruction of the dome of the Bahá’í National Headquarters in Tihran by government officials, and destruction of the House of the Báb in Shíráz. In short, these acts, all denying human rights, threatened the existence of the entire community of Persian Bahá’ís. Cables to the flab and the Prime Minister from Bahá’ís all over the world brought no cessation of the persecutions. The frenzy of the mobs, who were not only unrestrained but actually encouraged, reached such heights that the possibility of a widespread massacre of the Persian Bahá’ís became very real. This massacre was, in fact, openly promised in the press and in public meetings.

In July, 1955, Shoghi Effendi cabled the Bahá’í International Community to lodge an appeal for immediate assistance with the United Nations. At that moment, the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations was meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, and it was to this Council, or to some division of it, that the petition would have to be addressed. The chances that the Bahá’ís could present their case in time to save their co-religionists was slim. It was well known that the files of the Human Rights Commission contained thousands of appeals for relief from religious persecution and that the United Nations was able to do very little to alleviate the distress of the victims. It was decided to send a committee to Geneva to make a desperate appeal for help. The Committee consisted of Dr. Ugo R. Giachery, Dr. Hermann Grossmann, J ohn Ferraby,

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‘Aziz Navidi and Mildred R. Mottahedeh, each coming from a different country and meeting within thirty-six hours of the time that the decision had been taken to convene.

First, the Committee tried to get one of the delegates sitting on the Economic and Social Council to present their case from the floor of the Council. All delegates, except those from Communist or Arab countries, were interviewed and to each a strong appeal was made. At the same time, the Committee pressed for an interview with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Despite days of ceaseless efforts, only the personal sympathy of many of the delegates was won. Each passing day brought news of still more violent attacks on the Persian Bahá’ís and the date for the promised massacre drew steadily closer. The Committee redoubled its efforts but without effect. The head of the Human Rights Commission could offer little hope. Though many were friendly and sympathetic, no delegate or organization wished to speak up for the Bahá’ís. The day of the adjournment of the Economic and Social Council was drawing near. It was decided to seek the assistance of a competent lawyer to frame the appeal». Mr. Max Habicht was chosen, though at the time, the Committee did not know that it was this same lawyer who had represented the Bahá’ís before the League of Nations.

The appeal, together with the evidence of the persecutions, was presented to the SecretaryGeneral, to all members of the Economic and Social Council who had been interviewed, to the Human Rights Commission, to the Specialized Agencies, and to the International NonGovernmental organizations. A press conference was held and the news of the appeal circulated. The Committee could do no more in Geneva. With hearts made heavy by a sense of their failure to save their Persian brothers from extermination, they left Geneva to return to their native lands to launch a publicity campaign to arouse the public conscience.

A few days before the scheduled massacre, the Committee received the startling news that the Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjéld, yielding to the pleas of the American delegates and of the High Commissioner for Refugees, Dr. G. J. van Heuven Goedhart, decided to send Dr. Goedhart to meet with Mr. Nasru’llah Intizam, chief Iranian delegate to the

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United Nations, and his brother, Mr. ‘Abdu’lláh Intizam, Minister of Foreign Affairs in Iran. The meeting took place in Bonn, West Germany, where the two brothers were visiting at the time. Their government had been certain that the United Nations would not intervene to save the Bahá’ís since the provisions of the Charter for upholding human rights and fundamental freedoms were only morally, not legally, binding. The intervention of the SecretaryGeneral astounded the Iranian Government. This intervention, the efforts of prominent Bahá’ís in Iran, the appeals of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States to the American State Department, and the publicity campaign, brought an immediate end to the physical persecution and lifted the danger of massacre.

Economic reprisals against the Bahá’ís continued. Bahá’ís who had been summarily dismissed from civil service or from teaching posts were not restored to their posts. They were still denied the fundamental religious right of assembly for worship, and their centres were still being held by the government. After months of attempts by individual Bahá’ís in Tihran and many appeals by the Americans to their State Department, Shoghi Effendi instructed the Bahá’ís to launch another appeal to the United Nations.

In July 1956, Dr. Amin Banani and Mildred Mottahedeh again went to Geneva. They spoke individually with the delegates of the Economic and Social Council, but were unable to get them to present the Bahá’í case. Finally, Dr. Jose Vincente Trujillo, the delegate from Ecuador and Chairman of the Social Commission, opened the session of that Commission with the following words:

“ . . . In regard to prevention of discrimination against religious minorities, we have received many complaints. One of these, which, in my estimate, is of great importance, regards the curtailment of rights of a religious group in a country which is an honored member of the United Nations and which has a good record in human rights matters—«I am referring to the complaints of a new religious group called the Bahá’ís which have been distributed to the Secretary-General and other delegates. I believe this matter should receive the close attention of the Subcommittee on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and should

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receive equal attention with other instances of religious discrimination. This new religion should be respected like all other religions in the world.”1

ENDORSEMENT OF THE GENOCIDE CONVENTION

On April 10, 1959, representatives of the Bahá’í International Community presented to the President of the Human Rights Commission, Ambassador Gunewardene of Ceylon, a statement endorsing the Genocide Convention. For the second time, the National Spiritual Assemblies, representing Bahá’í communities located in North and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, made a joint effort in regard to the United Nations.

Mr. H. Borrah Kavelin, Chairman of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, made the following statement: “Mr. President, I have the honor and the privilege to present to you, as the keeper of the conscience of the United Nations and therefore of the world at large, documents which represent an act of conscience of my fellow coreligionists of more than eighty countries and territories.

“The resolution they have adopted reads: ‘Since the teaching and practice of the oneness of mankind is the cornerstone of the religion revealed by Bahá’u’lláh, His followers throughout our jurisdiction recognize the vital importance of the Genocide Convention for assuring the protection of small and helpless races and peoples.

“The Bahá’ís of the world have endorsed the Genocide Convention as an expression of their firmly held conviction of the oneness of mankind and of the human race.

“Nations, races and religious groups are called upon to enrich, through their own inherent gifts, the common treasury of civilization. Therefore, the destruction of any one of them impoverishes the whole of the human race.

“Upon the preservation of this basic noble principle depend all the other efforts of the United Nations. By endorsing the Genocide Convention, the Bahá’ís express, through us,

1 Further details of these appeals and the successful outcome appear in The Bahá’í World, vol. XIII, pp. 292—296.

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the hope that all the nations of the world will rally around this great Convention.” '

Ambassador Ratnakirti Gunewardene rereplied in part as follows:

“Mr. Kavelin and Members of the Bahá’í International Community: I am greatly impressed by the endorsement of the Genocide Convention by eighty National and Regional Assemblies of the Bahá’ís, coming as they do from countries and territories all over the globe. This is a most powerful expression of world opinion. It makes us feel that our work here in the United Nations is supported indeed not only by the Governments, but by the people themselves. . .”

The Second Indian National Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations on United Nations Information was held at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi, from April 3 to 5, 1959. This Conference was opened by the Prime Minister, Shri Jawaharlal Nehru, with an address advocating the idea of the oneness of nations of the whole world, thus attaining the federation of all nations.

About one hundred non-governmental organizations of India were represented at this Conference, including political, semi-political, non-political, social welfare, trade unionist and some religious organizations. The Bahá’í Community was represented by Mrs. Shirin Fozdar, Dr. K. K. Bhargava, R. R. Williams and P. C. Auplish.

Among the most important resolutions passed by the Conference were those on peace, universality, universal education for peace, and a world language. Several resolutions sponsored by the Bahá’í delegates were also passed.

On May 17 and 18, 1960, the United Nations Office of Public Information, in cooperation with the Executive Committee of the Non-Governmental Organizations, called a meeting at United Nations Headquarters to discuss problems of co-operation “with the United Nations family in so far as its program affects the new nations.” Each organization was invited to nominate two delegates and not more than three observers. In addition, each organization was asked to invite a member of its own executive governing board. Some 400 delegates and observers attended.

The Bahá’í International Community nominated Eugene Moye and Mildred Mottahedeh

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as delegates and Harriett Wolcott as observer. Charles Wolcott participated as secretary of the Bahá’í International Community.

During the final plenary session the nongovernmental organizations were invited to submit statements regarding their work in the “new nations”. The Bahá’í International Community submitted the following which became part of the record of the Conference:

“The Bahá’í International Community, representing the Bahá’ís of over eighty countries in all five continents of the globe, wishes to present a few of its achievements in the new nations.

“Community centres have been established both in rural and urban areas. In the urban areas, vigorous assistance has been provided the primitive peoples enabling them to integrate successfully into these more highly developed societies.

“Since a fundamental principle of the Bahá’í Faith is education for all, schools at various scholastic levels form an important part of a continuously expanding educational programme for adults as well as children.

“Each Bahá’í community endeavors to develop in its members a world point of view leading to a broader understanding of the fundamental oneness of the human race. This serves to eliminate the traditional prejudices between nations, races and religions.

“Since so many of our aims and those of the United Nations are identical, Bahá’í communities all over the world support a vigorous programme explaining the structure and purposes of the United Nations, an important part of which is the annual observance of United Nations and Human Rights Days.

“In the field of Human Rights, the equality of men and women has been firmly established in every Bahá’í community. In many of these communities situated in primitive areas where the status of women has been very low, women are now increasingly being elected to serve on governing bodies. Bahá’ís are active in the promotion of all fundamental Human Rights, even to the extent of the sacrifice of their own lives to preserve and uphold these principles on which the ultimate peace and security of all peoples depend.”

During the conference our observers and delegates had many opportunities to meet members of the United Nations Secretariat and

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members of other non-governmental organizations. Those attending on behalf of the Bahá’í International Community felt that the 1960 Conference was yet another step in the process of “strengthening our ties with the United Nations,” one of the ten goals which the beloved Guardian had set for the World Centre of the Faith during the Ten-Year Crusade.

In 1962, for the second time in the nine-year period covered by this report, persecution of Bahá’ís made it necessary to appeal to the United Nations for redress. This time the events took place in Morocco in the form of arrests and imprisonment of a number of believers on April 12 of that year. It was not until October 31, however, that they were finally arraigned before the Regional Court of Nador, and not until December 10 that trial was

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finally held in the Criminal Court of Nador. Death sentences were imposed upon three, five were sentenced to life imprisonment, and one was sentenced to imprisonment for fifteen years.

As the session of the General Assembly of the United Nations was to close on the evening of December 21, telegrams were sent to thirtyfive delegations appealing for help under the Genocide Convention, which is a part of International Law. The Bahá’í International Community wrote to U Thant, SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations, and the British United Nations Association, quite independently, cabled U Thant requesting his intervention.1

1 Further details concerning the Moroccan affair are reported in The Bahá’í World, vol. xm, pp. 288289.

3.DEVELOPMENTWDFTTHZRELATIONSHIP ISETFVVIEEPJ'TIiElIhAIizi5iIPJHTEIRPJACFICDPJAJ; COMMUNITY AND THE UNITED NATIONS

1963—1968

In pursuance of this objective a number of measures were taken, the most significant of which was the decision that the status of the Faith in the world had reached a level justifying application for recognition by the United Nations of the Bahá’í International Community as a non-governmental organization with consultative status. To this end the Universal House of Justice decided to assume the function of representing the Bahá’í International Community in its relations with the United Nations, a responsibility which had been shouldered for many years, with great distinction, by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States.

The Universal House of Justice decided in 1967 that the volume and scope of the work of the Bahá’í International Community justified the appointment of a full-time observer. Mrs. Mildred Mottahedeh, who had performed devoted and distinguished part-time service in

that office for nearly twenty years, asked to be relieved of the heavy responsibility, and Dr. Victor de Araujo was appointed Accredited Representative. Mrs. Mottahedeh accepted appointment as Alternate Representative of the Bahá’í International Community.

A number of valuable and constructive activities were carried out during the 1963—1968 period. In continuing its observer status as a Non—Governmental Organization, the Bahá’í International Community sent representatives to meetings open to it as well as maintaining current contact with the activities of the United Nations in New York and elsewhere. Bahá’í delegations attended the annual conferences of Non-Governmental Organizations associated with the United Nations and a delegation also attended the Observances Of the Twentieth Anniversary of United Nations held in San Francisco in June, 1965. At this gathering, as a token of appreciation and support of United

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Dr. Victor de Araujo, appointed in 1967 by the Universal House of Justice as accredited representative of the Bahá’í International C ammunity to the United Nations seen in his office.

Nations, the Bahá’í International Community presented to each delegation and to some of the officials a small, beautifully finished wooden box bearing on its cover the celestial and terrestrial globes of the world. The following message was attached:

Presented in appreciation by the Bahá’í International Community on the occasion of the Twentieth Anniversary Commemorative Meetings of the United Nations, San Francisco, June, 1965.

“The earth is but one country and mankind its citizens.” Bahá’u’lláh

Observances of United Nations Day and Human Rights Day were also held in many local communities throughout the Bahá’í world each year. The Bahá’í International Community continued to play an increasingly

active role in promoting interest in United Nations activities.

One of the important assignments given by the Universal House of J ustice to its representative was the presentation on behalf of the Universal House of J ustice of The Proclamation of Ba/zd’u’llah t0 fifty-six Heads of State via their ambassadors to the United Nations. This delicate mission was carried out with great success and with but few exceptions, for reasons beyond control, all the fifty-six ambassadors received this historic document.

In late 1965 the Bahá’í International Community established its own offices in New York, renting space in a new building facing the United Nations complex to the south. The Bahá’í United Nations Committee met for the first time in the United Nations Plaza Building in December, 1965.

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4. THE BAHA’T INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY AND THE UNITED NATIONS

1968—1973

By VICTOR DE ARAUJo

THE most important development in the relationship of the Bahá’í world to the United Nations during the period 1968—1973 was the granting of consultative status to the Bahá’í International Community by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) on May 27, 1970. The Universal House of Justice shared the news with the Bahá’í world in a cable reading in part :‘

JOYFULLY ANNOUNCE BAHAI WORLD ATTAINMENT CONSULTATIVE STATUS UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL THEREBY FULFILLING LONG CHERISHED HOPE BELOVED GUARDIAN AND WORLD CENTRE GOAL NINE YEAR PLAN . . . SIGNIFICANT ACHIEVEMENT ADDS PRESTIGE INFLUENCE RECOGNITION EVER ADVANCING FAITH BAHAULLAH . . .

Earlier that year, at its meeting of February 12, 1970, the Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations, the thirteen-member functional committee of the Economic and Social Council responsible for the relationship of the ECOSOC with non-governmental organizations, had unanimously recommended to its parent body approval of the consultative status application submitted by the Bahá’í International Community in 1967. It remained for the Economic and Social Council, a few months later, during its resumed 48th session (officially at its 169lst meeting), to accept the recommendation of the NGO Committee, granting to the Bahá’í International Community consultative status, category II.

Consultative status, Category II is given to “organizations which have a special competence in, and are concerned specifically with, only a few of the fields of activity covered by the Council, and which are known internationally within the fields for which they have or seek consultative status.” Consultative status, Category I—and there are hardly more

than a dozen organizations in this classification—is granted to “organizations which are concerned with most of the activities of the Council . . . and whose membership, which should be considerable, is broadly representative of major segments of population in a large number of countries.” F inally, a third category of “Roster” applies to “organizations which do not have general or special consultative status but which the Council, or the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations, considers can make occasional and useful contribution to the work of the Council, or its subsidiary bodies or other United Nations bodies within their competence.”

Accreditation with the Economic and Social Council, a relationship established by Article 17 of the Charter of the United Nations, which provides that “the Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence,” marked a new stage in the relationship of the Bahá’í International Community with the United Nations. The Bahá’í International Community could now participate in all sessions of the Economic and Social Council and its subsidiary bodies, and coulci. attend United Nations global and regiona. conferences and seminars organized under the jurisdiction of ECOSOC. Here, Bahá’í representatives—no longer purely observers—woukl be able to present pertinent written statement; (and make oral statements as well) which would be widely circulated either by the Bahá’í International Community directly, or by the United Nations itself as one of its official documents, in English, French, and Spanish. The Bahá’í International Community would also now be “consulted” on studies being undertaken by the United Nations within the Bahá’í areas of competence for the time being

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(such as human rights and the status of women), or on the substance of different United Nations resolutions which asked for the views of nongovernmental organizations in consultative status.

The first such “consultations” came during 1972. The Bahá’í International Community was asked to reply to questionnaires on Development and on Decolonization, areas of much concern to the United Nations and in which the UN was seeking the close cooperation of non-governmental organizations.

In its reply to the questionnaire on the contribution of non-governmental organizations to the implementation of the International Development Strategy governing the UN goals for world development during the decade of the 1970s, as requested in the Economic and Social Council resolution 1580 (L), the Bahá’í International Community was able to explain its all-encompassing View on development. The passage below, representing part of its answer, was included in an official UN document (Conference Room Report #1, November 30, 1972), and circulated in English, French, and Spanish:

The Bahá’í International Community, committed to development in an unlimited sense, views the moral and spiritual regeneration of man as the foundation for economic and social progress. This dedication to a change in attitude and the acceptance of certain principles such as universal compulsory education, the equality of men and women, the abolition of all forms of prejudice, the agreement of science and religion, resulting in the gradual end to superstition and meaningless dogma, the fundamental belief in the worth of the individual and the importance ofhis unique talents, the engagement in an occupation, such as arts or trade, made identical with the worship of God, and the realization of the organic wholeness of life, result in varying degrees, in different parts of the world, is an important contribution to the International Strategy for the Second Development Decade.

In its reply to the questionnaire on Decolonization, the first point made was that since

the Bahá’í International Community is totally non-political, whether at the local,

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national, or international level, it does not carry on any direct activities “to assist in the achievement of the objectives of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples and other relevant resolutions of the General Assembly”, as requested in Economic and Social Council Resolution 1651 (L1).

The statement went on to add that,

however, in a very positive way, the Bahá’í International Community . . . is deeply concerned with the spiritual, moral, social and physical well—being of all peoples. The commitment of the Bahá’í International Community to the organic oneness of mankind, to the concept of social justice as reflected in the principle ofequal rights and privileges for all peoples and the responsibility of each individual for the well-being of his fellow man, shows clearly that in the non-political areas Bahá’í communities are working for the kind of world where full human rights will be established and upheld, and in which men will see each other as brothers working constructively for the good of the whole

and concluded by explaining:

In an overall way, the Bahá’í International Community is contributing towards resolution 1651 (L1), as well as to the basic goals of the United Nations Charter in that it is a cross-section of humanity, representing the most varied religious and ethnic origins, almost all nationalities, classes, trades, professions, rich and poor, literate and illiterate, committed to the fundamental goal of a lasting world peace and an eventual world civilization.

The replies above suggest the possibilities available for presenting the Bahá’í point of View when the Bahá’í International Community is consulted on the degree of its involvement in United Nations programs, even in cases where the issues are of a political nature, in which no Bahá’í action is possible, such as in the area of Decolonization.

The first official participation of the Bahá’í International Community in attending sessions of the ECOSOC or its functional Commissions or Committees came about in the late summer

[Page 368]368 of 1970 at the 23rd session of the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Since then, the Bahá’í International Community has attended, either in New York or in Geneva, the annual sessions of the Economic and Social Council (the spring session in New York and the summer one in Geneva), of the Commission on Human Rights and its Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, of the Committee on NonGovernmental Organizations, and the biennial sessions of the Commission for Social Development and the Commission on the Status of Women.

As a result of its consultative status and its known concern for human rights, the Bahá’í International Community was invited to send representatives to special United Nations seminars for member-states in observance of International Year for Action to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination, 1971. The first seminar was held in Yaoundé, Cameroon, June 16~29. At this important meeting to discuss answers to problems of racial discrimination, Dr. ‘Aziz Navidi, representing the Bahá’í International Community, presented two statements explaining the Bahá’í point of view towards race and emphasizing the general principles concerning the oneness of mankind. In addition, both Dr. Navidi and Counsellor Dr. Mihdi Samandari, who assisted him at this seminar, had many opportunities to discuss with governmental representatives the pertinent teachings of Bahá’u’lláh.

The second special UN governmental seminar was held in Nice, France, on August 24 September 6, 1971. The Hand of the Cause of God Dr. Ugo Giachery, assisted by Mr. Albert Lincoln and Miss Guilda Navidi, represented the Bahá’í International Community. Twice the Bahá’í participants were given the opportunity to present the Bahá’í viewpoint on specific subjects being discussed, drawing a great deal ofattention and favorable comments from many government delegates.

Again, as an outcome of its consultative status, the Bahá’í International Community was invited to participate in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden, during the fitst two weeks of June, 1972. To this conference, which brought together representatives from over 100

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governments to take the first steps toward global cooperation in caring for the human environment, the Bahá’í International Community, working closely with the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Sweden, sent as its representatives Dr. Arthur Lyon Dahl, a marine ecologist, and Mr. Torleif Ingelog, a forest ecologist. A Bahá’í statement presented before one Conference session resulted in the improvement of some Conference recommendations. The Bahá’í delegation also contributed to a joint statement submitted to the Conference by the representatives of many non-governmental organizations.

A special pamphlet, The Environment and Human Values—A Bahá’í View, was prepared for the occasion and distributed to the 1,500 government delegates and 600 observers in attendance. Explaining “that the social structures of the world and the systems of values on which they are built cannot meet the new human needs,” the brochure pointed out that: the source of human values was to be found in religion—today, in the teachings of Baha’u’llah —and presented briefly the Bahá’í principles concerning the human environment. It concluded by mentioning the worldwide contributions already being made by Bahá’í communities in “creating both a world unified in its diversity and an environment promisingjustice and fulfillment for the whole of mankind.”

The Bahá’í International Community was also actively represented at the Environmental Forum held in conjunction with that United Nations Conference, where many non-governmental groups came together to present their views and discuss environmental issues. It sponsored a large exhibit illustrating some of the Bahá’í principles mentioned in the Bahá’í environment pamphlet, and made available large quantities of Bahá’í literature. Bahá’í representatives also organized and took part in a number of seminars and workshops where there were many opportunities to explain the Bahá’í answer to the world’s problems. Dr. Dahl observed in his report that the Bahá’í approach at the Conference “stood out as a positive program of action, laying the foundation for a new world society in harmony wi:h its environment.”

Since the sessions of the Economic and Social Council and its Commissions and Committees take place both at UN headquarters in

[Page 369]THE Bahá’í FAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

Mrs. Mary Sawicki, Administrative Assistant to Dr. Victor de Araujo, in the offices of the Bahá’í International C ammunity.

New York and at the Palais des Nations in Geneva, the Bahá’í International Community, after consultation with the Universal House of Justice, appointed, in August, 1971, Mrs. Janet Lindstrom as its representative in Geneva; and later, in February, 1973, in response to the expanded needs of its consultative work, it appointed Dr. Marco G. Kappenbeiger as alternate representative, to assist Mrs. Lindstrom. In addition, to help with Bahá’í International Community activities in Africa, in 1971 Dr. ‘Aziz Navidi was appointed Bahá’í International Community representative for the Continent of Africa. Alternate representatives appointed in New York, to assist the representative, Dr. Victor de Araujo, were Mr. John Miller, who replaced Mrs. Mildred Mottahedeh when she resigned in 1968, and later, when Mr. Miller left New York, Mrs. Annamarie Honnold.

Further, because of the gradually expanding operations of the United Nations office of the Bahá’í International Community, Mrs. Mary Sawicki was appointed Executive Assistant to Dr. de Araujo in July, 1972. A larger headquarters was also sought and found, still across from the United Nations, at 345 East 46th

Street. This headquarters provides separate offices for the representative, his executive assistant, and for the United Nations Representative of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, as well as a conference room, and space for secretarial, reception and mailing activities.

Soon after obtaining consultative status, the Bahá’í International Community became a member of the Conference of Non—Governmental Organizations in Consultative Status with the Economic and Social Council, and has participated actively, both in New York and in Geneva, in the work of committees organized by that Conference in the areas of human rights, status of women, and development. Such close connection with other non-governmental organizations in consultative status has permitted the Bahá’í International Community to co-sponsor statements, such as one presented to the Commission on the Status of Women at its 24th session, in 1972, in Geneva, supporting the proclamation of 1975 as International Women’s Year, and a statement presented that same year to the President of the General Assembly at the General Assembly’s 27th session, urging that a Draft Declaration on the

[Page 370]370

Elimination of Religious Intolerance be given priority in the work of that UN organ.

One new area of Bahá’í—United Nations cooperation concerned youth. In 1970, the Bahá’í International Community participated in the World Youth Assembly, a conference convened under United Nations auspices, at UN headquarters, as part of the observance of the 25th Anniversary of the United Nations, to explore issues of common concern to youth and the UN. Bahá’í representatives attended the plenary meetings of the World Youth Assembly and the sessions of its four commissions. Later, the Bahá’í International Community worked closely with the UN Headquarters Youth Caucus, a group of representatives and observers designated by a number of international non-governmental youth and youth-related organizations, which met with United Nations Secretariat officials to exchange information on matters of mutual interest, and co-sponsored a statement submitted to the Economic and Social Council (Document E/C.2/752, 7 September 1972) recommending the establishment of an International University.

The conference room in the ofices of the Bahá’í International Community, New York.

THE Bahá’í WORLD

Since the work of the United Nations in seeking solutions for the economic and social problems of humanity has now expanded to encompass the whole complex of human ills, the consultative status of the Bahá’í International Community will allow progressively greater opportunities for offering the Bahá’í answers needed to achieve the ultimate and lasting resolution of these problems.

The relationship of the Bahá’í world to the United Nations Office of Public Information (0P1), begun in 1948, continued to expand during the period 1968—1973. The Bahá’í International Community and many of its member-afliliates—National Bahá’í communities—participated in two important Regional Conferences of Non—Governmental Organizations sponsored by OPI in 1970 and 1972, the first, for the Continent of Africa, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, February 17—21, 1970; and the second, for South and Central America, and the Caribbean, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, August 21-25, 1972.

In Addis Ababa, one representative from each of seven National Spiritual Assemblies in Africa—Uganda and Central Africa; Kenya;

A

[Page 371]THE Bahá’í FAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

371

y 6 m FVVS’CW a um]

‘ 1/2 I

C onference ofNon-Go vernmental Organizations held in Addis Ababa, February, 1971, attended by representatives of the Bahá’í International C ammunity including (foreground, left to right) Mr. Ben Dlamim' ofSwaziltma' and Dr. Victor de Araujo.

Tanzania; Swaziland, Lesotho, and Mozambique; Cameroon Republic; Indian Ocean; and North East Africa—and from the Bahá’í International Community in New York, formed the largest delegation at the first Conference of Non—Governmental Organizations ever to be held in Africa. In this meeting, organized for the purpose of exploring ways in which national and international non-governmental organizations could support the work of the UN in Africa, the Bahá’í delegates participated fully both in plenary sessions and in the workshops. The Bahá’í delegation made many friends among participants and members of the UN Secretariat and the Economic Commission for Africa, and more than once Bahá’ís were praised for their efforts and dependability by the NGO Liaison Representative of the Ethiopian government, by the Chief of the Non-Governmental Section of OPI and by other UN personnel. In addition, in its official report of this Regional Conference, the United Nations Office of Public Information expressed its appreciation for the “valuable contributions of non-governmental organizations . . . in Addis Ababa by the NGO

Hospitality Committee and at UN headquarters by the Advisory Committee of International NGO’s with African affiliates.” Bahá’ís had played a prominent role in both committees, through participation of the Bahá’í International Community and the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of North East Africa.

The same basic pattern of involvement of the Bahá’í International Community and National Spiritual Assemblies occurred in Buenos Aires. There, the representative of the Bahá’í International Community helped to coordinate the contribution of the six Bahá’í participants, one each representing the National Spiritual Assemblies of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. Again, the Bahá’ís participated extensively in plenary and workshop sessions, and although here also no official statements could be presented, the Bahá’í delegation had many opportunities to meet the United Nations speakers and the representatives of the other international and national non-governmental organizations to discuss matters of global social and economic development and the role of international law in world

[Page 372]372

peace, and to introduce, whenever appropriate, the most pertinent Bahá’í principles and teachings on these world problems.

The participation of the Bahá’í world in United Nations Day and Human Rights Day programs continued to expand in this period, assisted each year by new National Spiritual Assemblies and their communities. The Bahá’í International Community constantly encouraged National Spiritual Assemblies, through suggestions in circular letters, and mailings of United Nations information and materials, to make use of these two occasions to show close cooperation with the aims and activities of the United Nations, thereby helping to fulfill the goal of the Nine Year Plan of strengthening the ties of the Bahá’í world with the UN. Accordingly, Bahá’í communities throughout the world supported the UN in its Observances of International Year for Human Rights (1968), International Education Year (1970), and International Year for Action to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1971), and the UN Office of Public Information continued to warmly recognize and welcome the Close cooperation of the Bahá’í world in educating the public regarding the UN aims and activities toward global peace and unity.

The Bahá’í International Community continued to participate fully in the Annual Conferences organized for non-governmental organizations at UN headquarters by the United Nations Office of Public Information. The delegations of the Bahá’í International Community and of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States were invariably composed of Bahá’ís of different racial and national backgrounds, of both sexes and of different age groups. The Bahá’í International Community representative and alternate also attended regularly the weekly Septemberthrough-May briefings organized by the Office of Public Information on current developments in the full range of United Nations programs. This information enabled the Bahá’í International Community to keep abreast of the current programs of the United Nations and to disseminate this information to its memberaffiliates throughout the world.

This period of development of the Bahá’í International Community’s relationship with the United Nations also saw the establishment of closer ties between national Bahá’í com THE Bahá’í WORLD

munities and United Nations Information Centres (UNIC)—overseas branches of the Office of Public Information. Many National Spiritual Assemblies became listed with the appropriate UNIC, an informal kind of accreditation comparable to the more formal relationship of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States with the United Nations Office of Public Information in New York. This relationship was especially of benefit in organizing locally more effective United Nations and Human Rights Day programs. In this connection, to further assist National Spiritual Assemblies to strengthen the ties of their communities with local UN offices and officials, in 1972, on his way to the Non-Governmental Conference in Buenos Aires and on his return, the representative of the Bahá’í International Community Visited all South American countries (except the Guyanas) and Panama, where he not only met with National Spiritual Assemblies and their communities to explain and discuss the Bahá’í relationship to the United Nations, but, accompanied by members of those Assemblies, called on UN officials to discuss close cooperation between the national and local Bahá’í communities and the UN.

Bahá’í International Community cooperation with the Office of Public Information was further recognized through the election of Dr. Victor de Araujo to membership on the executive Committee of Non-Governmental Organizations with OPI throughout this period. He also served as Officer—as Vice-Chairman during 1969 and 1970, and as Chairman during 1971 and 1972. This Bahá’í participation further increased the prestige of the Bahá’í International Community at the United Nations.

As in the past, the Bahá’í International Community office in New York assisted with matters of protection and recognition of the Bahá’í world community. Under the direction and guidance of the Universal House of Justice. contacts were made on many occasions with the United Nations Missions and Secretariat. Here again a growing understanding of the non—political and constructive nature of the activities of the Bahá’í community, created through a more intensive involvement of the Bahá’í International Community in the work: of the UN, as a result of its consultative status. made access to key United Nations officials:

[Page 373]THE Bahá’í FAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

at 373

3'

The Hand of the C ause Ugo Giachery, observerjbr the Bahá’í International C ammunity at the United Nations Seminar on “T he Danger of Recrudescence oflntolerance”; Nice, 1971. Miss Guilda Navidi, sitting at his right, acted as public relations representative.

[,7

easier when a clear presentation of the Baha 1 position was called for to foster the official recognition of the Faith or to prevent discrimination against a Bahá’í community. Throughout this period, Bahá’í National Spiritual Assemblies, those administrative bodies whose communities comprise the Bahá’í International Community and are its member-affiliates throughout the world, responded with an awareness of their participation as National Non-Governmental Organizations, both in the consultative accreditation of the Bahá’í International Community with the Economic and Social Council and in its relationship with the UN Office of Public Information. The expanding cooperation that developed may be seen by the most willing assistance that the Bahá’í National Assemblies of Africa

and South America gave to the Bahá’í International Community and the United Nations in sending representatives to the Addis Ababa and Buenos Aires Conferences, through the valuable assistance given by National Assemblies to Bahá’í delegations attending conferences, seminars and meetings outside New York, and through the efforts exerted by Bahá’í communities in participating at grass root levels in an ever greater number and variety of UN Day and Human Rights Day programs. This close cooperation was a most important factor in forging closer ties between the Bahá’í world and the UN and contributed to the prestige and recognition of the Bahá’í Faith, in United Nations and international circles, as a dynamic force committed to world unity.

[Page 374]374

THE Bahá’í WORLD

Proposals for Charter Revision

Submitted to The United Nations

BAHA 1

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

National Spiritual Assemblies of (he Bahá’ís of

AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND

BRITISH ISLEs CANADA CENTRAL AMERICA

EGYPT SUDAN

GERMANY AUSTRIA

INDIA PAKISTAN BURMA

IRAN IRAQ

ITALY SWITZERLAND

SOUTH AMERICA

UNITED STATES

[Page 375]THE BAHA’I’ FAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

May 23, 1955

Mr. Dag Hammarskjb'ld Secretary-General United Nations

New York, N. Y.

Dear M r. Secretary-General:

The Bahá’í International Community, in its capacity of an international nongovernmental organization, submits recommendations for revision of the C harter of United Nations and the Statute of the International C ourt of Justice.

These recommendations constitute the considered views of the twelve1 National Bahá’í Assemblies representing the Bahá’ís of Train, India, Pakistan and Burma, Australia and New Zealand, ‘Iráq, Egypt and Su’ddn, Germany and Austria, Italy and Switzerland, the British Isles, Canada, C entral America, South America and the United States. Their participation unites a wide diversity of national, racial and religious backgrounds in one common concept of the structure needed to establish justice and peace.

In submitting its recommendations the Bahá’í International Community is concerned with the desperate condition into which the nations and peoples of the world have fallen. The seeds of destruction are sown within as well as without the present membership of United Nations. N0 minor and legalistic adjustment of the Charter, the Bahá’ís are convinced, can restore the supremacy ofmoral law in the conduct ofhuman aflairs nor seize control of events from the chaos which engulfs mankind. The Bahá’ís appeal to every enlightened and responsible statesman associated with United Nations to grasp, before it is too late, this providential opportunity to create a political organism commensurate with the new and unprecedented character of the world in our time.

The Bahá’í recommendations are based upon three apparent truths: that real so vereignty is no longer vested in the institutions of the national state because the nations have become interdependent; that the existing crisis is moral and spiritual as well as political; and that the existing crisis can only be surmounted by the achievement

375

ofa world order representative of the peoples as well as the nations ofmankind.

The Bahá’í concept ofworld order is defined in these terms: A world Super-State in whosefavor all the nations of‘the world will have ceded every claim to make war, certain rights to impose taxation and all rights to maintain armaments, exceptfor purposes ofmaintaining internal order within their respective dominions. This S tate will have to include an International Executive adequate to enforce supreme and unchallengeable authority on every recalcitrant member of the C ommanwealth; a World Parliament whose members are elected by the peoples in their respective countries and whose election is confirmed by their respective governments; a Supreme Tribunal whosejudgment has a binding efi‘ect even in cases where the parties concerned have not voluntarily agreed to submit their case to its consideration.

Since action by peoples as well as g0 vernments is essential, the Bahá’í recommendations include the proposal that consideration of revision by United Nations be accompanied by wide dissemination Of the principles of international relations and the calling of peoples’ conventions to register the general will.

Impossible as the achievement of world order may appear to traditionalist orpartisan, mankind is passing through a crucial stage likened to that ofan individual entering maturity and using new powers and faculties beyond the grasp of irresponsible youth. Unassailable is the position that any lesser international body represents a compromise with the forces of disaster and destruction.

In support ofits thesis the Bahá’í International C ommunity presents with this letter an annex citing references to the subject in Bahá’í writings, and an annex proposing specific revisions.

Sincerely, Bahá’í INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

1 Since the submission ofthese Proposals for Charter Revision the number of National Spiritual Assemblies comprlsmg the Bahá’í International Community has (1973) increased to one hundred and thirteen. See Bahá’í

Directory, p. 702

[Page 376]376

THE BAHA’I’ WORLD

5. BAHA’I PROPOSALS TO THE UNITED NATIONS FOR CHARTER REVISION

THE experiences of the last decade have demonstrated the need for certain fundamental changes in the charter of the United Nations if that organization is “to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war . . ., reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small; to promote social progress and better standards of living in larger freedom.”

In order to insure the realization of the principles proclaimed in the Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations, that organization must be given real authority and military power to maintain Peace and uphold international Justice; it must operate in accordance with the principle of equality of nations large and small; it must become the guarantor of human rights, faith in which was so eloquently proclaimed in the Preamble.

The authors of the Charter foresaw a time when its terms would need revision and provided, in articles 108 and 109, for changes and revisions. In this connection, the Bahá’í International Community submits, in addition to its statement of principle, a number of specific and general suggestions listed below.

I. Membership in the United Nations being an indispensable condition for the preservation of international peace, no nation should be allowed to leave the organization. It is therefore proposed that Article 6 of the Charter be amended to read:

A member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the Principles contained in the present C harter may be subjected by the General Assembly, upon recommendation of the Security Council, to economic and other sanctions, and, in extreme cases, may be compelled by fbrce to abide by the principles of the C harter.

II. In order to give the General Assembly more freedom of discussion, it is suggested that Article 12 Ofthe Charter and all references to it which occur in any other Article (such as Articles 10, ll, 35, etc.) be eliminated.

111. It is suggested that membership in the General Assembly be apportioned according to some form of proportionate representation and Paragraph 1, of Article 18 of the Charter, be amended accordingly.

IV. The Principle of the equality of nations large and small, proclaimed in the Preamble, must not be disregarded or contradicted in any article of the Charter. Therefore, it is suggested that Article 23 be changed to read:

1. The Security Council shall consist of eleven Members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly for a term of two years, no retiring member being eligible for immediate re-election.

2. Each member of the Security C ouncil shall have one representative.

All reference to permanent members of the Security Council found in any of the articles of the Charter to be eliminated.

V. In conformity with Article 23 (as revised), Paragraph 2 of Article 27 shall read:

Decisions of the Security Council shall be made by an afirmative vote ofseverz members; provided that in decisions made under Chapter VI, and under Paragraph 3 ofArticIe 52, a party to the dispute shall abstain from voting.

Paragraph 3 of Atticle 27 to be eliminated.

VI. The maintenance of peace being a task incumbent upon all members of the Unitec. Nations, it is proposed that the first sentence of Paragraph 2, Article 47, be amended to read:

The Military Staff C ommittee shall consisf Of the Chiefs of'Stafl Of the members of the Security C ouncil or their representatives.

VII. In the interests of justice, it is proposed that Article 50 be amended to read:

lfpreventive or enforcement measures against any state are taken by the Security Council, (my other state, whether a member of the United Nations or not, which finds itself canfronted with special economic problems arising fi'am the carrying out of those men [Page 377],

THEBAHA

iFAITH AND THE UNITED NATIONS

377

‘ s

United Nations Seminar on “The Evils of Racial Discrimination”, Yaounde, Federal Republic

of Cameroon, June, 1971. The Bahá’í International Community was represented by Dr. ‘Azlz

Navldl (centre). T0 the left is seen Dr. Mihdi Samandart’ of‘the C antinental Board of C ounsellors

in Central and East A frica. 1n the back row, centre, is Mr. Mbeng Jacob A yukotang, Auxiliary

Board member, and in fi'ont ofhim, Mrs. Zora Banks. Next to her is Mr. Carl Jones Enoachuo, Chairman of the National Spiritual Assembly.

sures, shall have the right to ask the Security Council for a solution of its problems.

VIII. Having been written and adopted during the course of the Second World War, the United Nations Charter at times reflects the feelings and conditions which prevailed then and which do not exist any longer. It is inappropriate to perpetuate the use of the term enemy in relation to certain states which must inevitably cooperate in the establishment and the maintenance of world peace. It is suggested that Paragraph 2 of Article 53, as well as references to “enemy states” in any other article of the Charter, be eliminated.

IX. In the interests of Justice, which is the only principle upon which the edifice of durable peace can be raised it is proposed that the International Court of Justice be given compulsory jurisdiction in all legal disputes between states and Article 35 of the “Statute of the International Court of Justice” be amended to read:

1. The jurisdiction of the Court comprises all cases and all matters especially provided for in the C harter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force.

2. The states parties to the present Statute declare that they recognize as compulsory ipso

facto and without special agreement, the

jurisdiction of the Court in all legal disputes

concerning:

a. the interpretation of a treaty;

b. any question ofinternational law;

c. the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of an international obligation;

d. the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international obligation.

3. In the event of a dispute as to whether the

Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be

settled by the decision of the Court.

X. It is recommended that the United Nations adopt a Bill of Rights, which guarantees to every individual freedom of speech, of the press, of religion, and of thought, as well as freedom from racial and religious discrimination, freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, equality of sexes, equality before law, equality of opportunity, and other basic human rights. The individual human being is a spiritual as well as a physical creation and the purpose of society is to provide for the evolution of spiritual qualities in a framework of unity sustained by law.