Bahá’í World/Volume 31/Obligation and Responsibility in Constructing a World Civilization
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Obligation and Responsibility in - Constructing a World Civilization
Dr. Hoda Malmwudi examine: the nature qfa spiritualized torinyfimmltd rm altruism and m'ipma'ty and based an the principle: describm’ in the Balm’ '1’ writing:
and responsibility is not an easy task. The twentieth century
has shown the capacity ofhuman beings to inflict unimagi- nable pain, suffering, and destruction upon one another. In terms ofcivil violence, mass murder, and genocide, no other century rivals that of the twentieth, and it remains to be seen what the twenty- first century has [0 offer in this regard. The collapse ofcommunism and the end of the Cold War, rather than bringing an end to a long—standing ideological battle, seem to have fuelled the flames of nationalism, ethnic rivalries, and religious hatred, thus bringing to the surface, in an extreme form, the terror and ugliness of ethnic cleansing. At any given time around the globe, countless atrocities are inflicted by one group of human beings upon another. In fact, an assessment of the current global community cannot help but conclude that at the early stages of the rwenty-first century. human- ity, rather than acting on the reality of its interdependence and its need for collaboration, is instead pursuing a course that hinders the possibility of building bonds ofcooperation and peaceful existence, and appears to stand on the brink of total disorder and chaos.
Constructing a world commonwealth grounded in obligation
I47
148 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
As the forces of globalization continue to unfold, the world community finds itself in a quagmire of growing political instabil— ity, intensifying economic inequality, and the weakening of family, educational, and religious authority. Never before in history have the widely dispersed, diverse peoples and cultures of the planet lived in such close proximity to one another. And yet within this emerging global community deep attitudes of suspicion, distrust, and hatred persist among its diverse populations. Those engaged in the study of cultures have, on the one hand, pointed to multiculturalism as a means for democratic society to recognize and promote equal representatien of all, including equal access to economic means.‘ But multiculturalism is challenged by deep—rooted prejudices and attitudes of superiority and control amongst certain groups or cul— tures that actively impede possibilities ofremoving barriers, resolving differences, and promoting advancement towards coexistence.
Others, like Samuel Huntington, view the emerging global community as one wherein “the clash of civilizations" or conflict between cultures is inevitable.z In particular, Huntington views the post-Cold War era as one in which “cultural identities" are “shaping the patterns ofcohesion, disintegration, and conflict.”3 He describes this “new world” thus:
In the post—Cold War world flags count and so do other symbols of cultural identity, including crosses, crescents, and even head coverings, because culture counts, and cultural identity is what is most meaningfiil to most people. People are discovering new but often old identities and matching under new but often old flags which lead to wars with new but often old enemies.‘
For many, modernity and its initial optimism and promise for a better, more advanced economic system and rationalization in orga— nization is viewed as a failed experiment. Many critics believe that
' Amy Gutmann, ed., Multimltumlzkm: Examining the Politic: afRemgnilian (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 3.
2 Samuel 1’. Huntington, The Clash afCivilizatiom and tile Remaking of‘Warla' Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998).
5 Ibid., p. 20.
‘ Ibid.
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OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 149
modern society is incapable of resolving its basic social ills. much less the more complex global uncertainties that challenge humankind to search for new paradigms ofimcmational life and civil organization and governance. Sociologist Robert Bellah and others describe this seeming impotence of the modern age:
There is a widespread feeling that the promise of the modern era is slipping away from us. A movement ofenlightenment and liberation that was to have Freed us From superstition and tyranny has led in the twentieth century to a world in which ideologi- cal fanaticism and political oppreasion have reached extremes unknown in previous history.5
In Seedbtdr 0f Virtut, Mary Ann Glendon points out how in postmodern academy. words like “virtue" and “character have nearly disappeared from the lexicon of the modern human sciences.“ Oth- ers have observed a decline in public morality as democratic societies have spread, as growth in prosperity has occurred, and as personal Freedom has expanded.7
Jonathan Sacks, in his book Tl): Dignity othfltrtnm How to Avoid the C141]; of Civilizations, suggests that the current conflict- ridden global community is in need ofcommon values that promote coexistence if we are to avoid the clash of civilizations. He writes,
[Nlation—states seem increasingly unable to control global phenomena from multinational corporations to ecologiul devas— tation, and we have not yet evolved a form ofgloba] governance. Market capitalism has increased wealth beyond the imagination of previous generations, but cannot, in and of itself, distribute it equally or even equitably. There are problems that cannot be solved within the terms set by modernity, for the simple reason that they are not procedural, but rather vaiuational or, to use
‘ Robert N. Bellah cf 21., Habit: 0f :11: Heart: Individualitm and Commimmnr in American Lifi (Berkeley: University of California Press, I985). p. 277‘
" Mary Ann Glendon and David Blankcnhom, eds, Seedbedr afVmue: Saurm' afCompnmce, Character. and Citizemlzip in American Sarita (Lanham. MD: Madison Books. 1995). p. 5.
7James Q. “Vilma. "Liberalism. Modernism. and the Good Life." in Sezdbedt ofVmw. pp. 17—34‘
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the simple word, moral. There is no way of bypassing diFficuit moral choices by way of a scientific decision—a procedure that states: “Maximize X.” We first have to decide which X we Wish to maximize, and how to weigh X against Y when the pursuit of one damages the fulfilment of the other. The human project is inescapably a moral project. That is one reason why the great faiths, with their history of reflection on moral issues, must be part of the conversation.8
Sociologist Philip Selznick defines modernity as referring to “the special features of the technologically advanced industrial, commercial, urban society that has taken shape in the West since the eighteenth century, anticipated, of course, by earlier trends and ideas.”" He presents a constructive perspective of modern life by suggesting that
Modem life offers a welcome if risky challenge [0 the moral order. As self—determination is enlarged, as awareness is sharpened, the complexity ofmoral choice increases. The responsibility ofindi— viduais and groups becomes in many ways more self—conscious and more demanding. More is asked of us and we ask more of ourselves. ‘°
In the late twentieth century, postmodernism emerged as a re— action to modernity, rejecting scientific objectivity, challenging the notion of coherence, and refining the existence of any authoritative principles. Postmodernism rejects any form oftruth, whether philo- sophical, scientific, or religious. Zygmunt Bauman, writing about the characteristics of postmodern literature. but making an observation relevant to society at large, states,
What the inherently polysemous and controversial idea ofpauma- derm'ty most often refers to . . . is first and foremost an acceptance of the ineradicable plurality of the world—not a temporary state
" Jonathan Sacks. Th: Dignigy ofDiflEVence: How to Avoid the Chm afCivi— Iizatiom (London: Continuum. 2002), p. I95.
" Philip Selznick, The Mom] Cnmmanwmltb: Social 771cm}: and the Promise of Community (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1992), p. 7.
m [bid., p. 4.
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on the road to the not-yet-attained perfection, sooner or later to be left behind, but the constructive quality of existence. By the same token, postmodernity means a resolute emancipation from the characteristically modern urge to overcome difference and promote sameness.... In the plural and pluralistic world of postmodernity, every form of life is permitted on prhmple; or, rather, no agreed principles are evident which may render any form of life impermissible.”
In his discussion of the challenge of postmodernism, Philip Selznick points to its validity in relation to the "many insidious aspects of modern life, including hidden forms of power and ma— nipulationm He refers to postmodernism as the "wayward child of modernism" and suggests that “its central message carries ‘the logic of modernism to its faIthest reaches.m He then elaborates on this point:
It does so without retaining the intellectual, moral, and aesthetic strengths of modernism; without the belief that there is genuine truth to be discerned; without confidence in the possibility of creating new and better ways of manifesting the human spirit; without tacit commitment to continuity as well as change. What there was of exuberant optimism has been dis« placed by cynicism and despair. With some fidelity postmodern theorists reHeet—and dramatize—the weakening of selfhood in late modernity.”
New ideologies continue to emerge, some with the goal of pro— viding, on the one hand. solutions to the social ills presently at work throughout the world, and on the other, with grim explanations for the failure of any form of intervention that might be the source of remedy for the many global disorders. The unparalleled levels of violence, the proliferation of political corruption. the increased
" Zygmunt Bauman. "Strangers: The Social Construction of Universality and Particulariry." in Trio: 28. no. 23 (1988—89). quoted in Robert Kagan. In Over Our Hmdr: The Mental Demand: nfMadzrn Li I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 326.
‘2 Selznick. Mam! Commonwealth. p. 13.
" lbid.
152 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
lawlessness, the breakdown in the code of ethics, the lax attitude toward ecological disintegration, the overall disregard for human rights, all such disorders seem to have brought humanity to its darkest hour. It is no wonder that the individual’s response to such dreadful developments is one of a paralysis of will, a sense of deep pessimism, and profound disanection. At the heart of the current predicament in which a beleaguered global community finds itself, are complex questions about the future direction of humankind. Is there the potential for a way out of the present dark condition in which humanity finds itself? Is it possible for humans to find a common vision in advancing reasonable solutions to the present course of disintegration? Who can or should take responsibility for reversing the present bleak conditions faced by humankind?
The aim of this paper is to examine the challenging pronounce- ment advanced by Bahei'u’lléh, of the need for humankind in the present age to recognize and bring about a world community that is founded on the unification of the human race and the establish— ment ofa new world order that is responsive to the needs of a single human race. The paper discusses the teachings of the Baha’i Faith that address the establishment of the “constructive social forces which, because they are consistent with human nature, will encour- age harmony and cooperation instead of war and conflict.”“‘
Cognizant of the capacity ofhuman beings to do both good and evil, the paper examines, from the spiritual framework set forth in the Baha‘l writings, what it means to be human. It discusses the potential ofthe development, through moral education, of spiritual qualities leading to individual and institutional actions that aim to promote the welfare of others as more important than one’s own. It develops the Baha’i concepts of reciprocity and altruism as providing a Foun- dation for the formation of a society centered on “constructiveness and acgomplishment in all the planes of human activity.""
” Universal House ofJustice. Tl): Premise afW/orul’eare (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1985). p. 3.
'5 'Abdu’LBaha, Tl): I‘romulgalz‘an af Universal Peace: 7211/5 Delivered by IAbdu'l—Bahd a’un’ng Hi5 Visit to the United Starr: and Canada in 1912, rev ed. (Wilmette, IL: Baha'f Publishing Trust, 1995). p. 338.
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OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 15}
The Claim of Bahé’u’llah
In the middle of the nineteenth century, Bahé'u'lléh imparted His vision of the oneness of humankind and the earth as a common homeland. In the [8605. while an exile of the Ottoman Empire, Bahéu lléh wrote about the need for the creation of a "New World Order," stating.
The winds of despair are, alas, blowing from every direction, and the strife that divides and afflicts the human race is daily increasing. The signs of impending convulsions and chaos can now be discerned. inasmuch as the prevailing order appears [0 be lamentabiy defective” . .
Soon will the present day Order be rolled up and a new one spread out in its stead."
Some 70 years later, Shoghi Effendi wrote that the “dark forces
. of hate, rebellion, anarchy, and reaction are thmtening the very
stability of human society.” 17He expounded on the need for a new
system (world order) as set Forth by Bahai'u‘lléh and set into motion
a plan for its development towards the organization of an emerging
giobal community. In 1936, he wrote the following about the disorder facing humanity and the need for its unification:
Beset on every side by the cumulative evidences ofdisintegration, of turmoil and of bankruptcy, serious—minded men and women, in almost every walk of life, are beginning to doubt whether society, as it is now organized, can, through its unaided efforts, extricate itself from the slough into which it is steadily sinking. Every system, short of the unification of the human race, has been tried, repeatedly tried, and been found wanting.m
"‘ Bahé'u'llfih. cited in Shoghi Eflendi. The World Order afBabd'u'lld/J: St- lemd me, 2nd rev. ed. (Wilmette. 1L: Bahé’f Publishing Trust. I993). pp? 32, 161.
1’ Shoghi Effendi. Bahd'lAdministmtinn: Selected Mmagex (922—1932 (Wil- mette. u; Bahé'! Publishing Trust. 1995), p. 52.
‘5 Shoghi EFfendi. World Order 0fBahA'u'lld/1. p, I90.
[54 THE. BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
Unification of the Human Race
A large part of Bahé’u’llah’s writings is dedicated to the progressive nature of God’s revelation and man’s relationship to it. There is only one God, described in Baha’u’lléh’s writings as an “unknowable Es— sence exalted beyond every human attribute, such as corporeal existence. ascent and descent, egress and regress.”19 “Know thou,” Bahé’u’llah asserts, “that every created thing is a sign of the revela— tion of God.“20 Consequently, it is through the Will of God that successive revelations, or religions, are made known to humanity. The Baha’i teachings view divine revelation not as a static, unique event, but as a continuing process that is the central feature of hu— man history. There is only one religion. That there have been and will continue to be Prophets who introduce humankind to God’s progressive revelation does not imply that religion is in competi— tion with itself. Rather, as explained by Baha’u’llah, “if thou callest them [Manifestations of God] all by one name, and dost ascribe to them the same attributes, thou hast not erred from the truth.... For they ate all but one person, one soul, one spirit, one being, one revelation.”21 The spirit that inspired all the Founders of the great religions of the past, and will inspire Those to come in the future. is recognized as one and the same. Their original teachings contain the same basic ethical and moral precepts, prominent among which are the teachings that promote reciprocity and altruism. The tenets that change from one religious dispensation to another are the social laws and practices. Thus, religious truth is understood to be relative, progressive, and developmental.
Manifestations of God appear because humanity is in need of spiritual renewal. With every new revelation, a new Prophet, or Mani— festation of God, appears with a twofold purpose. The first, according to Baha’u’lla’h, is “to liberate the children of men from the darkness of ignorance, and guide them to the light of true understandings
'9 Bahé’u’llah, Gleaningxflam the Writing: ofBa/Id'u’lldly (Wilmette, IL: Baha’i Publishing Trust, 1994), p. 46.
2“ Ibid., p. 184.
2' Ibid., pp. 51 and 54.
OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 155
The second is to ensure the peace and tranquillity of mankind, and provide all the means by which they can be established.”
According to Bahé’u’lléh. the first step towards the establishment of peace begins with the acceptance of the principle of the oneness of the human race. He states, “The well—being of mankind, its peace and security are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established."” He proclaims the principle of unity as the cehtral purpose of His Faith. "So powerful is the light of unity," declares Bahé‘u’lléh, “that it can illuminate the whole earth."M The image that comes into view regarding the unification of the human race is that of a global community in which all inhabitants recognize and accept their membership in one human family. In Bahé'u’llfih's own words, uThe world is but one country, and mankind its citizens."25 Shoghi Eflendi explains that the “coming ofage of the human race," as proclaimed by Bahé’u'lléh, is associated with the unification of the human race. which will evolve into “the stage at which the oneness of the whole body of nations will be made the ruling principle of international life."l"
Bahé’u’lléh’s vision of the emerging international community mils for the widening of the existing foundations of society. It demands the reshaping of institutions in order that they be in harmony with “the needs of an ever-ehanging world."27 In the following passage Shoghi Effendi summarizes what Bahé'u'llfih Foreshadowed for the evolving global society:
Unification of the whole ofmanlu'nd is the hall-matk of the stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family, of tribe, of city—state, and nation have been successively attempted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation—building has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is moving towards
2’ lbid,. pp. 79—80.
t'“ Bahé‘u’lléh. cited in Shoghi Elfendi. World Order ofBahd'u'l/db, p. 203.
2‘ Bahé'u‘th. Epistle In the Son nft/Jr Walf(Wilmette. IL: Bahé’l Publishing Trust, 1995). p. 14.
2’ Bahé'u’llaih. Cleaning; p. 150.
2“ Shoghi Effcm‘li. WarM Order of Babd'u'lla’ly, p. 193.
3’ lbid.. p. 41.
156 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002~2oo3
a climax. A world, growing to maturity, must abandon this Fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships, and establish once and for all the machinery that can best incarnate this fundamental principle of its life.“
Given this vision of the oneness of humankind and the need for a new global world order, the question arises as to how the Baha’f Faith envisages the development of such a system. In particular, what are the roles of the individual and of Bahé’f institutions in constructing a social life based on the unification of humankind living in a truly interdependent world commonwealth? How is such a system possible given the present moribund condition of the world community? Is it possible—or even realistic—to assume that human beings can bring about cooperation and constructiveness in social relationships?
The Bahé’f teachings address the development of social patterns that are necessary for the well—being of humankind. For the indi— vidual Baha’f, personal commitment to the laws and principles of Bahé’u’llah is the key to transforming oneself, which leads, in turn, to the transformation of civilization. One’s inner life and attitudes cannot be separated from one’s public life. The ethics and values that guide the individual are not separate from those of society.
In the following passage, Shoghi Effendi expound: on the im— portance of the interconnectedness of the individual and society:
We cannot segregate the human heart from the environment outside us and say that once one of these is reformed everything will be improved. Man is organic with the world. His inner life molds the environment and is itself also deeply affected by it. The one acts upon the other and every abiding change in the life of man is the result of these mutual reactions.29
The Baha’i teachings shift the focus of religious practice from individual salvation or enlightenment to the collective responsibility
2‘ Ibid., p. 202.
1’ Letter written on behalf of Shoghi EEendi to an individual believer. 17 February 1933, in Commutian oftbe Earth} Rtmurcts. prepared by the Re‘ search Depattment of the Universal House ofJustice (October 1989). in The Compilation of Campilatians, vol. 1 (Ingleside, NSW: Baha'i Publications Australia, 1991), p. 84.
OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 157
for the progress of humanity as a whole. The Bahé'l conception of social life is essentially based on the subordination of the individual will to that ofsociety. The Bahai’l teachings address social conditions and global problems as directly related to the individual’s spiritual life and sense oftesponsibility; Bahé’l principles such as world peace. the equality of women and men, harmony between science and religion, the equitable distribution ofwealth and resources, and the elimination of all forms of prejudice are, for Bahé’is, inseparable from religious belief and practice.
This emphasis on collective progress has important implications for the relationship of individual entities—whether individual per— sons, institutions. nations, or other groups—to the larger society of which they form a part. As Shoghi Wendi describes, the relationship between these entities is based on the principle of the subordina— tion of “every particularistic interest, be it personal, regional, or national, to the paramount interests of humanity.” This. in turn. is based on the idea that “in a world of intet-dependent peoples and nations the advantage of the part is best to be reached by the advantage of the whole.””
Yet the “interests of humanity as a whole” are not conceived in terms of a vague abstraction that could be appropriated by a par— ticular dominant group and interpreted as identical with its own interests but. rather, as a complex dynamic relationship between the parts and the whole, in which the viability of the whole is served by ensuring the well—being of all its individual parts, an enterprise for which all share responsibility.
This conception is demonstrated at its most basic level in the relationship of the individual person and society, in which a complex balance is sought between individual freedom and responsibility. Cooperation between society and the individual is stressed in the Bahd’i' writings, as is the fostering of “a climate in which the untold potentialities of the individual members ofsociety can develop.” Such a relationship. as it is envisioned. “must allow ‘free scope’ for ‘indi— viduality to assert itself" through modes ofspontaneity, initiative, and diversity that ensure the viability of society.” Even while the will of
’0 Shoghi Elfcndi. War“ Order afBabd'u'l/dh. p. 198.
158 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
the individual is subordinate to that ofsociety, Mthe individual is not lost in the mass but becomes the focus of primary development."3‘
Thus, a Fundamental principle of social relations and structures for Bahé’fs lies in the realization of belief through practice. The fulfilment of individual potential is [0 be sought not in pursuing self-centered desires but in contributing to the benefit and well—being of others, and in the belief that "the honor and distinction of the individual consist in this, that he among all the world's multitudes should be a source of social good."32 This challenging assertion as put forth in Bahé’f teachings cannot be fully understood without an examination of the Bahé’l perspective of what it means to be a human being and what is the purpose of life for humans.
The Dual Nature of the Human Being
The paleontologist Ian Tattersall, in his book Becoming Human, describes what he believes sets humans apart from animals: “ [Hf we have to identify any single characteristic that sets us apart, one ofthe things that is truly extraordinary about human beings is their finely honed perception of the world beyond their social milieu."33 Differences between human beings and animals are explained with great care in the Bahé’f writings. Animals are “captive of the senses” and do not have “the powers of ideation and conscious re— flection”; “they are without education and training” and “have no toud't with the spiritual world and are without conception ofGod.” And yet. animals are described as being keener than humans when it comes to bodily senses. Animals manifest superiority to humans in their “powers such as hearing, sight, smell. taste. and touch,”5
3‘ Universal House of Justice, Individual Réglm and Frerdarm in 1/1: World Order afBabd'u’IIA/I: A Statement b} the Universal Home ofjuxtirc (Wilmette, IL: Bnhé'l Publishing Tmst, 1989), pp. 20-21.
’1 'Abdu'l-Bahi, TI): Sam: 13/" Divine Civilization (Wilmette, IL: Bahé’f Pub~
Iishing Trusr, 1994), p. 2.
Ian Tattcrsall, Becoming Human: Evolution and Human Uniqueness (New
York: Harcourt Brace 8: Co., 1998). p. 195.
‘Abdu’l—Bahé, l’romulgation annivtrml Peace, pp. 255, 172—73, 311.
3‘ ‘Abdu’I-Bahé. Some Awwmd Question: (Wilmette. 11.: Bahfi'f Publishing Trust, 1994), p. 187.
A3
34
OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 159
but they are unable to “perceive intellectual realities." ‘Abdu‘l—Bahé
writes,
For example, that which is within the range of its vision the animal sees, but that which is beyond the range of sight it is not possible for it to perceive, and it cannot imagine it. So it is not possible for the animal to understand that the earth has the form of a globe. But man from known things proves unknown things and discovers unknown truths.56
The Bahi’i writings describe the “human spirit" as the “rational
soul,” unique to humans and absent in the world of nature, explain— ing that the “rational soul is the substance through which the body exists.”7 Regarding the nature of the human spirit, ‘Abdu'l—Bahé says,
When you wish to reflect upon or consider a matter, you consult something within you. You say, shall I do it, or shall I not do it? Is it better to make this journey or abandon it? Whom do you consult? Who is within you deciding this question? Surely there is a distinct power, an intelligent ego. Were it not distinct From your ego, you would not be consulting it. It is greater than the faculty of thought. It is your spirit which teaches you, which advises and decides upon matters.38
Although humans are dinetent from animals in significant ways,
as described above, they nevertheless, have a dual nature. ‘Abdu’l— Bahé describes this duality in the human being, stating,
I.
v
55
3‘)
[Ms an animal he is subject to nature, but in his spiritual or conscious being he transcends the world of material existence. His spiritual powers, being nobler and higher, possess virtues of which nature intrinsically has no evidence; therefore, they triumph over natural conditions.”
lbid., p. 187.
Ibid.. p. 240.
‘Abdu’LBahé. Pramulgzztiori ofUniumal Peace, p. 2.42. Ibid., p. 81.
160 THE BAHA’I’ WORLD 2002—2003
In another place ‘Abdu’l—Bahé states the following about the duality of human beings:
But the spirit of man has two aspects: one divine, one satanic— that is to say, it is capable of the utmost perfection, or it is capable of the utmost imperfection. If it acquires virtues, it is the most noble of the existing beings; and if it acquires vices. it becomes the most degraded.“
Humans, then, have the capacity for both good and evil acts. However, the force of darkness must be overcome through deliber— ate attention and great eflbn in the development of the force of light or goodness. Shoghi Effendi, in a letter written on his behalf, explained the Bahé’f perspective that “evil exists and we cannot close our eyes to it, even though it is a negative existence. We must seek to supplant it by good.”“ It is through spiritual education that the individual learns to demonstrate the constructive force through deeds. ‘Abdu’l-Bahé explains that it is the role of religion to provide spiritual education, which, in turn, is a means for the alleviation of the destructive forces. He states, “Close investigation will show that the primary cause of oppression and injustice, of unrighteousness, irregularity, and disorder, is the people’s lack of religious faith and the fact that they ate uneducated.”42
Being Human
The Bahfi’f viewpoint on human nature is not based on a specific philosophical, anthropological, political, or sociological theory. The station and purpose of human beings is explicitly defined by Bahé’u’lléh in the following passage:
Having created the world and all that liveth and moveth therein, He [God], through the direct operation of His unconstrained and
‘° ‘Abdu‘l—Bahé, Same Answered Questions, p 144.
4‘ Shoghi E&‘endi, Unfilding Dettiny: Tb: Mmagafium t/Il Guardian aft/Jt 811de Faith to the 34/74? Cammunity aftht British 151:: (London: Bahé'l Publishing Trust, 1981), pp. 457—58.
‘2 ‘Abdu'l—Bahi, Stmt afDivin: Ciuilizatian, p. 18.
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OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY I61
sovereign Will, chose to confer upon man the unique distinc— tion and capacity to know Him and [0 love Him—a capacity that must needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying the whole of creation.“
This unique distinction bestowed upon man confers responsibil- ity and capacity for the cultivation of spiritual virtues in the sewice of the collective advancement of society.
In addition to describing God’s purpose in creating man and his unique station, Bahé’u’llfih addresses the lofty purpose inherent in every individual to become the “source of all goodness and an example of uprightness to mankind.”44 He states, “Noble have I cre— ated thee, yet thou hast abased thyself. Rise then unto that for which thou wast created."4S Furthermore, He declares, “We love to see you at all times consorting in amity and concord and to inhale from your acts the fragrance of friendliness and unity, of loving-kindness and fellowship.”“‘ The Bahé’l' teachings insist that the individual leave behind outdated traditions, prejudices, superstitions, narrow- mindedness. and provincial tendencies that keep humanity apart. They invite the individual to acquire a “world embracing" vision that accepts the equality, well—being, and oneness of all people.
The Universal House ofjustice explains the purpose for spiritual laws by comparing them to the laws that govern the physical lives of humans. It states,
Just as there are laws governing our physical lives, requiring that we must supply our bodies with certain foods, maintain them within a certain range of temperatures, and so forth, if we wish to avoid physical disabilities. so also there are laws governing our spiritual lives. These laws are revealed to mankind in each age by the Manifestation of God, and obedience to them is ofvital importance if each human being, and mankind in general, is to develop properly and harmoniously. Moreover. these various
‘3 Bahé’u'lléh, Cleaning. p. 65.
“ lbid., p. 315.
4‘ Bahé’u’lléh. Tb: Hidden Word; (Wilmette. u; Bahé'f l’ublishingTrust, 1994). Arabic no. 22, pl 9.
- 6 Bahé’u'llaih. Gleaningx, p. 315.
THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
aspects are interdependent. If an individual violates the spiritual laws for his own development he will cause injury not only to himself but to the society in which he lives. Similarly, the condi— tion of society has a direct efl’ect on the individuals who must live within it.47
The station of man is thus one of refinement and righteous- ness through the application of spiritual principles and laws. In this process, individuals are responsible for their actions toward others and thus strive to become a source ofpositive influence on others as well as on the environment or the society in which they are actively involved.
What Baha’u’llah asks is that individuals embrace a vision far beyond the narrow confines of their traditional norms, wherein one’s family, clan, culture, or nation is considered as superior and separate. A vastly expanded circle of social interaction is called for. A higher level of consciousness and moral commitment is required in an international community that has developed highly complex levels of social interaction. Shoghi Effendi elucidates this point in the following passage:
Let there be no misgivings as to the animating purpose of the world—wide Law of Bahé’u’llah. Far from aiming at the subver— sion of the existing foundations of society, it seeks to broaden its basis, to remold its institutions in a manner consonant with the needs of an ever—changing world. It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can it undermine essential loyalties. Its purpose is neither to stifle the flame of a sane and intelligent patriotism in men’s hearts, not to abolish the system of national autonomy so essential if the evils of excessive centralization are to be avoided. It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to sup— pfess, the diversity of ethical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of thought and habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world. It calls for a wider loyalty, for a larger aspiration than any that has animated the human
47 Universal House of Justice, letter to all National Spiritual Assemblies, 6 February 1973, in Mesxagesfiom 2/92 Universal Home afjwtz'ce, 1965—1986 (Wilmette, 11.: Bath“ Publishing Trust, 1996), p. 231.
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race. It insists upon the subordination of national impulses and interests to the imperative claims of a unified world. It repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and disclaims all attempts at uniformity on the other. Its watchword is unity in diversity."
Thus, the Babe“ teachings affirm the capacity of individuals and humanity as a whole to develop behavior aimed at establishing eonstructiveness, cooperation, and agreement in social interactions. Such beneficial Forces req uire that great attention and energy be de— voted to the socialization of the individual though a strong spiritual or moral education.
Moral Education
Human beings, according to the Bahé’f perspective, are funda- mentally spiritual. But developing spiritual capacity requires moral education. Developing the spiritual side of humans is a compre— hensive, life-long process. The Bahé’f writings are realistic in their assessment of the capacity ofhumans to pursue selfish motives or to inflict great harm on others. In the following passage, ‘Abdu’l—Bahé explains the deep roots of man’s self—centered tendency and prescribes spiritual education as a requisite for overcoming it:
[llt is impossible for a human being to turn aside from his own selfish advantages and sacrifice his own good for the good of the community except through true religious faith. For self—love is kneaded into the very clay of man, and it is not possible that, without any hope of a substantial reward, he should neglect his own present material good. That individual, however, who puts his faith in God and believes in the words of God—because he is promised and certain ofa plentiful reward in the next life, and because worldly benefits as compared to the abiding joy and glory of Future planes of existence are nothing to him—will for the sake of God abandon his own peace and profit and will Freely consecrate his heart and soul to the common good.“
‘8 Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahd’u'lld/J, pp. 41—41. ‘9 ‘Abdu‘I—Bahé. Secret of Divine Civilization. pp. 96—97.
164 THE BAHA’I’ WORLD 2002—1003
The Bahai’l teachings on spiritual education focus on training children from a young age in ugoodly character and good morals," and on guiding them to “all the virtues of humankind."50 Spiritual education is centered on the development of that distinctive qual— ity, the spiritual nature, which the Bahd‘l teachings explain as being unique to human beings. ‘Abdu’l-Baha’, in the following passage, explains the significance ofraising children to have a strong spiritual constitution:
A child is as a young plant: it will grow in whatever way you train it.’If you tear it to be truthful, and kind, and righteous, it will grow straight, it will be fresh and tender. and will flourish. But if not, then from the faulty training it will grow bent, and stay awry, and there will be no hope of changing it.51
This training is so important that the Bahé’l teachings assert. “Training in morals and good conduct is far more important than book learning.”52 This principle is Further elucidated in the follow- ing passage:
A child that is cleanly, agreeable, of good character, well- behaved—even though he be ignorant—is preferable to a child that is rude, unwashed, ill—natured, and yet becoming deeply versed in all the sciences and arts. The reason for this is that the child who conducts himself well. even though he be ignorant, is of benefit to others, while an ill-natured, ill-behaved child is corrupted and harmful to others, even though he be learned. If. however, the child be trained to be both learned and good, the result [5 light upon light.‘3
Bahé l child socialization aims to develop a pmsocial orientation in children, who are encouraged to recognize themselves as members of a community that begins with the family and extends to include
‘Abdu’l-Bahé, Selenium fivm the Writing: of Hbdu’l—Ba/Jd (Wilmette, IL: Bahé'f Publishing Trust, 1997), p. 135.
‘Abdu’l-Bahé, in “Bahé‘l Education. “in Compibzrion afCompilatiom, vol. 1, p. 287.
'Abdu'l-Bahé, Selenium, p. 143.
lbid.
OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 165
all of humanity. Prosocial behavior is defined as the psychological mechanism of social action which includes helping, sharing. and caring for others. Bahé’i children are taught appreciation for the principle of unity in diversity and a respect for others regardless of race, class, or nationality; they are encouraged to develop a sense of personal spiritual responsibility to act toward others with compas— sion as well as justice and equity, and to sacrifice their own mat'etial self—interests for others in need. As adults, Bahé’is are expected to make a commitment to continue internalizing such patterns until they become the foundation of the personality itself. Spiritual de- velopment is seen as an infinite process ofself—translbrmation—that is, a continual, conscious refining of one’s behavior in the crucible of social interaction. The cultivation of spiritual, altruistic qualities remains the aim and central Focus of life for the adult Bahé’i.
Spiritual life is not separated from the realm ofsocial relations but integrated with it. In this way, it becomes the means for authentic change that is positive and aimed at advancing society. The Universal House ofjustice explains the distinctive significance of the spiritual nature of humans and its positive influence in history thus:
The endowments which distinguish the human race from all other Forms of life are summed up in what is known as the hu- man spirit; the mind is its essential quality. These endowments have enabled humanity to build civilizations and to prosper materially. But such accomplishments alone have never satisfied the human spirit, whose mysterious nature inclines it towards transcendence, a reaching towards an invisible realm, towards
the ultimate reality, that unknowable essence of essences called God.54
Promoting the Welfare of Others
Shoghi Efiendi explains that the breakdown in the present social conditions of the world is an outcome of the decline of true religion as a social force. He writes,
"‘ Universal House ofjustice, Promixe afW/arld P(flc‘t, p. s.
166 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
The perversion of human nature, the degradation of human conduct, the corruption and dissolution of human institutions, reveal themselves, under such circumstances, in their worst and most revolting aspects. Human character is debased, confidence is shaken, the nerves ofdiscipline are relaxed, the voice ofhuman conscience is stifled, the sense of decency and shame is obscured, conceptions of duty, of solidarity, of reciprocity and loyalty are distorted, and the very feeling of peacefulness, ofjoy, and ofhope is gradually extinguished.55
Ifhuman beings are responsible for the current degenerative con- dition facing society, they are, likewise, in a position to do something about it. Bahfi’u'lléh describes the role of religion as a social force with the capacity to promote the good of society but also warns about its capacity to harm. He states,
Religion is the greatest of all means for the establishment of order in the world and for the peaceful contentment of all that dwell therein.... The weakening of the pillars of religion hath strengthened the hands of the ignorant and made them bold and arrogant.... Religion is a radiant light and an impregnable stronghold for the protection and welfare of the peoples of the world, for the fear of God impelleth man to hold fast to that which is good, and shun all evil. Should the lamp of religion be obscured, chaos and confixsion will ensue, and the lights of fairness, ofjustice, oftranquility and peace cease to shine. Know thou. that they who are truly wise have likened the world unto the human temple. As the body of man needeth a garment to clothe it, so the body of mankind must needs be adorned with the mantle of justice and wisdom. lts robe is the Revelation vouchsafed unto it by God."6
Religion, then, not only has the potential for, but also has a direct role in. the advancement of the moral order. Religious teachings can become the source for cohesion and solidarity in social relationships among all the cultures and peoples of the world. The individual can
‘5 Shoghi Effendi. F%ru Order nfBa/yd'u'lldh, p. 187. "" Bahé'u’lléh, ihid., p. 186.
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become a positive force whose actions become the cause of the well- being of others. Shoghi Efl'endi explains,
Indeed, the chief reason for the evils now rampant in society is a lack of spirituality. The materialistic civilimtion of our age has so much absorbed the energy and interest of mankind, that people in general no longer feel the necessity of raising themselves above the forces and conditions of their daily material existence. There is not sufficient demand for things that we should call spiritual to differentiate them from the needs and requirements of our physical existence. The universal crisis aflecting mankind is, therefore, essentially spiritual in its causes.57
The more Fundamenml moral or spiritual attributes that axe at the heart of influencing society and advancing it From one that is purely materialistic to one that strikes a balance between the material and spiritual, are outlined by the Universal House ofJustice as follows: “the virtues that befit human dignity are trustworthiness, forbear— ance. mercy, compassion, and loving—kindness towards all peoples.”SB It is through the application of these virtues in one’s daily life and through the work of Bahai'f institutions that real change can come about in human interactions. Such virtues belong to every person, since all are capable of internalizing them. It is through deeds that individuals take responsibility for a moral order.
Reciprocity and Altruism
Social relationships involve “requirements that must be met ifgroups are to survive and flourishw’ Philip Selznick believes that these re— quirements include “leadership. communication, specialization, and symbolic amrmation of group identity.”("’ But then there are other requirements that “generate moral obligations." such as “maintaining
‘7 From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Ffi'endi to an individual believer, 8 December 1935. in “Youth,” in Compilation afCampiLm'om. vol. 2. p. 415. ‘5 Universal House ofJustice, Prnmin afWarld Peace, p. 15.
‘9 Sclznick, Mam! Commonwealth, p. 97. 5" Ibid.
x68 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
order, protecting property, and Facilitating cooperation.”°‘ As an example of such obligations, Selznick writes,
[A] norm of reciprocity ("people should help those who have helped them; people should not injure those who have helped them”) is, in one form or another, universally recognized. Such principles are not accidental developments. They are solutions to problems, rediscovered innumerable times as ways ofdealing with ever—present demands of organization and solidarity.“
Although the norm ofrcciprocity appears to be universally recog- nized, its actual practice and implementation are impossible without a system that promotes the fundamentals of individual moral devel— opment. Reciprocity can be guaranteed only as a result ofindividual consciousness, internalization ofspiritual values, and a social system that acrively promotes and supports such values within its institu— tions. Only then can a moral order based on reciprocity evolve.
The Baha'i writings describe the evolution of a moral order in language that places significant responsibility upon the individual in learning to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong. Bahé'u’llah states. “We have counselled all people, in the most clear and eloquent language, to adorn their characters with trustworthi— ness and godliness, and with such qualities as are conducive to the elevation of man’s station in the world of being.““3
He asserts, “The betterment of the world can be accomplished through pure and goodly deeds, through commendable and seemly conduct.“ A moral order, as envisaged in the Baha’f writings, is possible provided that the means for mutual responsibility and a genuine concern and consideration for others in all social interactions are successfully developed among the members of society.
Reciprocity is a concept that is highly valued in the Bethe?! teach— ings. It is the one principle that aims to bring about true altruistic
"' Ibid.
“1 Ibid.
"‘ Baha‘u'llah, in “Tmstwotth'mess,” in Campilatiarl nfCampil/uiom, vol. 2. P- 332.
“4 Baha'u'lléh, cited in Shoghi Effendi. The Advent thivinejum'tr (Wilmette, IL: Baha’i Publishing Tmst, 1990), pp. 24—25.
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intentions in social interactions. It is an integral part of a system of social exchange based on return or giving back. It strives to bring about solidarity, a sense of duty to others. Altruism, the Latin root of which means “other," is defined as unselfish regard for or devo— tion to the welfare ofothers."S In the social sciences, it is considered to be a highly multifaceted concept.“ Sociologists such as Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and others have acknowledged the p’res— ence of altruism in society. In their book, T In Altruistir Personalig': Rescuer: offew: in Nazi Europa, Samuel and Pearl Oiiner point out that "the act [ofaltruism] needs to be performed entirely for its own sake apart from any considerations of self—satisfaction, pleasure, or utility."67 Thus, self—interest as an inherent trait of human beings is challenged and the notion “that human behavior can be motivated by self—transcendence” is upheld.“I Sociologist Helen Fein has de— veloped a theory of “collective altruism,” suggesting that altruistic people “help persons outside their borders to whom they owe no conventional obligation" and whom they view as members within their own “universe of obligation."69 Fein explains that for the altruistic person there is no “Otherfm'
Two types of altruistic behavior are mentioned in the literature: universalistic or inclusive, and specialized or bounded. Lawrence A. Blum Concludes, “The more inclusive the altruism, the more worth it has.”" Sclznick defines particularism as bounded altruism or “an ethic ofcommitment to individuals who matter because of the special connections they have, not because of their general characteristics.. . .
5‘ W/ebsttr} New Collegiate Dittinnmy. 9th ed;
For a more in«depth discussion of the roots of altruism see, Samuel P.
Oliner and Pearl M. Oliner, Tb: Altruixtic Personality: Rescuers afjnw in
Nazi Germany (New York: The Free Press, 1988).
“7 lbid., p. s.
lbid.. p. 358 n. 5.
Helen Fein. Genocide: A Sociological l’mptttiut (London: Sage Publications.
1993),“). 65—66.
’" lbid.. p. 65.
7‘ Lawrence A. Blum. “Altruism and the Moral Value of Rescue: Resisting Persecution. Racism, and Genocide,” in Embmcing the 01/1”: Philosophical. Psychological, and Hirmriml Perspectives an Altruixm. ed. Pearl M. Oliner et al. (New York: New York University Press. 1992). p. 35.
(.9
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The ‘other’ to be regarded. for whom self-sacrifiee is appropriate, be- longs to one’s own family or community.”2 Universalism, or inclusive altruism, according to Selznick, is found when, “[i]n defining objects of moral concern, the special interests of persons and groups are set aside.”73 Selznick explains that with inclusive altruism, “people are classified according to such objective criteria as age, need, talent, or achievement, in the light of general policies or purposes, without considering the special claims ofkinship or group afliliation. This is the morality of fairness, the familiar logic of the ‘rule of law.’"“ He describes the importance of inclusive altruism, stating,
[U]niversalism is a natural accompaniment to the formation of communities. As opportunities for cooperation are enlarged and their benefits perceived, the application of altruism is no longer limited to a small band of close relatives. Particularism is diluted as the community expands. More and more people are recognized, first as fellow—creatures and then as colleagues or members of the same in—group. In the modern nation—state the particularistic connotations of “citizen,” though far from lost, are greatly attenuated.7s
The Baha’i perspective is clearly more aligned with the inclusive or universal form of altruism. It correlates with the Baha’i claim of the need for acceptance of the unification of all people, the con— sciousness that humanity has now reached the point where it must live as one human family because of the challenges and requirements of the age in which we live. ‘Abdu’l—Baha’ elaborates on this theme:
The supreme need of humanity is cooperation and reciprocity. The stronger the ties of fellowship and solidarity amongst men, the greater will be the power of constructiveness and accomplish- ment in all the planes of human activity. Without cooperation and reciprocal attitude the individual member of human society remains self—centered, uninspired by altruistic purposes, limited
71 Selznick, Mural Commonwealth, p. 194. 7" lbid.
7‘ lbid.
7‘ Ibid., p. 195.
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OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY I71
and solitary in development like the animal and plant organisms of the lower kingdoms.“
Elsewhere. the Baha’f writings explicitly delineate altruistic norms, holding in high regard those who “nurture altruistic aims and plans for the well—being of their fellow men.m7 Other teachings reflect the values and attitudes conducive to an altruistic orienta« tion," including a sense of unity with and responsibility towards others beyond one's own social group; a strong family orientation; emphasis on relationship rather than status; generosity; trustwor- thiness; appreciation of diversity; as well as ethical values of justice and caring.
It is noteworthy that both the ethical principles ofjustice and of caring—important motivators of altruistic behavior—are emphasized in the Baha'i writings, where they are not viewed as contradictory or exclusive but as inseparably connected. Even when the ethic of justice is enjoined. it is usually as a practice to be performed out of concern for others. Justice is presented as the practice ofequity. often linked with “safeguardling] the rights of the downtrodden?” The Baha’i conception of justice means that all have a right to receive case.
Well over half a century before Carol Gilligan called attention to the complementarity of the “masculine" ethic of justice and the “feminine” ethic ofcaring,”l ‘Abdu’l—Bahé had written, "The King— dom of God is founded upon equity and justice, and also upon mercy, compassion. and kindness to every living soul. Strive ye then with all your heart to treat compassionately all humankind.”‘“ Yet, He then qualified this statement. asserting that oppression must be opposed: "Kindness cann0t be shown the tyrant. the deceivet. or the thief, because it maketh them to continue in their perversity as before.”Z Individuals are encouraged to develop their capacities
7" ‘Abdu'LBahé. I’mmulgation of Uniumal Peace, p. 338.
'q ‘Abdu'LBahé. Solutions, p. 72..
7" See Oliner and Olinet. Altruim'r Pmmmlity, n. 66.
7’ Bahé'u‘llfih. Gleaningt. p. 7.47.
’“ Carol Gilligan. In a Dzfi’rmt Voice: Hycha/ogical Them}! and Women} Dc— t'tlopmmr (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1982).
l” ‘Abdu’l-Bahzi, Stlem'am. p. 158.
“3 Ibid.
, 172 THE BAHA f WORLD 2002—2003
in identifying those who are oppressors, whether they manifest this trait through physical force, dominance, terrorism, dishonesty, se— duction. villainy, or evil. ‘Abdu’l-Bahfi’s statement is clear in insisting that we are to withhold goodwill and kindness when faced with the demoralizing behavior of tyrants, deceivers, or thieves, since such foul behavior brings harm upon others and becomes the cause of distrust, oppression. and injustice. These violations of individual rights may not be tolerated under any circumstances within the context of a moral order.
Bahé’l' Institutions and the Promotion of Altruism
The Bahé’f teachings recognize that the transformation of individuals into altruistic persons cannot take place outside the social context, which must provide a matrix for that transformation. Research has drawn attention to the importance of group norms in motivating moral behavior, whether directly, as a response to social expecta‘ tions, or indirectly, as internalized personal norms.” The findings of Oh'ner and Oliner Further underscore what they refer to as the normocentric orientation in motivating the altruism of rescuers of Jews during World War II.“ Oliner and Oliner write: “[A] normo— centric reaction is not rooted in direct connection with the victim, but rather in a feeling of obligation to a social reference gxoup with whom the actor identifies and whose explicit and implicit rules he feels obliged to obey.“5
Such findings imply that not only must altruistic qualities be fostered in individuals, but a social framework must also be provided within which cxtensivity and altruism are highly valued and represent the norms of the group itself. The creation of such a society is in- separable from the development of individual altruistic personalities, for so long as groups value egocentrism, unfettered individualism, ethnoEentrism, status seeking, dominance. and a materialistic
“3 See J. Reykowski, “Mutivation of Prosocial Behavior," in Cooperation and Helping Behavior: warin and Rutarch, ed. V. J. Detlaga and J. Grimlak (New York: Academic Press. 1981). pp. 355—75.
“4 Oliner and Oliner. Almim'c Pmonaliq. pp. 199—209.
‘5 Ibid., p. [99.
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orientation. altruism will remain an exception to the rule. and the altruistic personality will appear as deviant in comparison to the test of the group. In Bahé’! society this situation is reversed: altru— ism is not an aberrant behavior contrary to convention. because the normative expectations (which individuals are ultimately expected to internalize) are altruistic.
Where Bahé'i socialization and moral education are aimed at developing the spiritual side of the person, the Bahé’f administra— tive order (or Bahé’f insdtutions) seeks to advance spiritual values, principles and laws through formal means. Bahé’l institutions are viewed as an instrument through which the spirit of the teachings of Bahfi'u’lléh is realized collectively. ln sociologiml terms, these institutions constitute a rational system of moral agency. That is, as institutions they embody values beyond mere efficiency or techni- cal excellence. Their aim is the creation of a new world civilization grounded in spiritual principles relevant to the needs of this age.
Bahi'u’lléh conceived the formation of Bahé’l' institutions, and their Functions and responsibilities are expounded upon in the writ— ings of ‘Abdu'I—Bahfi and Shoghi Elfendi. These governing bodies promote the progress and development of the community through the applimtion ofspititual principles and laws. Among their responsi— bilities are educational programs for children and adults, community devotional meetings, application and observance of Bah.“ laws and principles relevant to the rank and file of members, and the overall spiritual protection and well—being of the community as it advances towards the implementation of the goals of the Bahé’f religion. The goals are arrived at and outlined through a consultative (inclusive) system where the Universal House ofjustice. being at the highest level of Bahé'f institutions, communicates its vision and plan to each national institution, referred to as the National Spiritual Assembly, and in turn, to the regional and local institutions. thus coordinating the work of the Bahé’i community at the global level.
Thus, in the Bahé’i view, it is through the individual practice as well as the institutionalization of the principle of unity in diversity that human society can evolve to an unprecedented level of cohe— sion and cooperation, and transcend the limitations implicit in the current state of separation and competitiveness. While the Bahé’f conception of unity in diversity should not be viewed as merely a
174 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
version of liberal pluralism, the safeguarding and encouraging of diverse elements within the Babe“ community is a major institu— tional principle. It is embedded within Baha'l institutions through practices that, because they apply at all levels of administrative and community fimcrioning—local, national, and international—require the participation and support of the entire Bahé’l community. Under liberal pluralism diverse groups lobby the power structure in order to ensure that their interests are represented, while in the Bahé‘f community every individual, regardless of class, culture. gender, race, or nationality, is responsible for upholding and applying the spiritual principles and laws laid down by Bahfi’u’lléh, which form the structure of a social order. In the Bahé’f context, there is only one community, which is united around the general teachings of Bah Vu’lléh. Through the application of these principles and laws the betterment of all members is realized and not simply a par- ticular group or segment of society which aims to promote its own particularistic agenda.
Most prominent of these practices is consultation, a group decision—making process whose goal is to reach solutions to prob— lems by consensus. Baha'l’ consultation encourages the open and Frank expression of diverse views on the topic under discussion, in an atmosphere of love and respect that also allows the "clash of dif— fering opinions" that can strike the “shining spark of truth?“ Each member of the consultative group has an equal right of expression, and no blocs or FactionHr any subdivisions of the group—axe permitted. Inseparable from the Bath.“ consultative process is the development ofsensitivity and respect for the different voices whose expression of opinion may not fit into conventional 01' dominant cultural modes of communication. Since the group attempts to work towards consensus on an issue, voting only as a last resort, the process does not necessarily require reduction to duality: alternatives need fiat be narrowed down to the two poles “for” and “against." Instead, the consultative process itself, drawing on the interactive contributions of all its diverse members, is looked to as the creative source of new solutions.
“6 ‘Abdu'l-Bahé. quored in Shoghi Effcndi. Bnhd'iAdminimatian. p. 11.
OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY 17$
Consultation is regarded both as a method for generative decision making and conflict resolution and as an instrument for reinforcing the unity of a diverse group. It is the method by which the Baha’i administrative institutions conduct the affairs of the Baha’i commu— nity. but Baha’ls are also encouraged to use consultation in all aspects of their lives, whether in the family, neighborhood, or workplace.
Another way in which Baha’f administrative institutions are struc- tured to implement unity in diversity involves practices intended to ensure the participation of minority ethnic populations. (The definition ofwhat constitutes a “minority” is left to the discretion ofthe National Spiritual Assembly of each country.) “To discriminate against any race, on the ground of its being socially backward, politically immature, and numeritu in a minority” is considered to be “a flagrant violation of the spirit" of the Baha'i teachings.87 In principle, protecting the “just interests of any minority element within the Baha’i community” and ensuring that all have the opportunity to contribute their perspectives to the collaborative efforts of the group are considered so important that representatives of minority populations “are not only enabled to enjoy equal rights and privileges, but they are even favored and accorded priority.”M Baha’i communities are instructed that it is their duty to ensure that “Baha‘i representative institutions, be they Assemblies, con— ventions. conferences, or committees, may have represented on them as many of these divers elements, racial or otherwise, as possible."""
One way in which this principle is practiced is the minority tie rule of Baha'i elections. In the course of elections for Baha‘i admin- istrative institutional membership—elections that are conducted without nominations or campaigning and are decided by plurality vote—if voting results in a tie between persons, one of whom rep— resents a minority, “priority should unhesitatingly be accorded the party representing the minority, and this for no other reason except to stimulate and encourage it, and agord it an opportunity to further the interests of the community.""° In addition to its direct effect in
“7 Shoghi EPfendi, Adam! afDivine jwtirr. p. 29.
” Universal House of Justice, Message: fiam 1/1: Uniwrral Haw: afjum'ct, 1968—1973 (Wilmette, 1L: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 49.
"" Shoghi Effendi, Advent afDivincjustice, p. 36.
"“ lbid.
[76 THE BAHA’f WORLD 2002—2003
increasing minority representation in 331141 administrative institu— tions, the practice of this rule heightens the sensitivity of the group to its minority membership and reaflirms the group commitment to valuing and encouraging minority participation. For the individual Bahé’f, conceding a tie vote to the minority representative becomes a concrete opportunity to practice sacrifice of self—intetest for the other, within a context of social approval.
Whether applied in community administration. in the family, in education, or in the economy. the Bahai’l principles and practices are viewed as catalysts whose application will ultimately bring about social transformation leading to the development of an altruistic global society. Such a society, in the Bahzi’f context, begins with the individual striving daily toward personal transformation—the deliberate internalization of spiritual teachings incorporating altruistic, extensive values as personal norms. The Bahé’f teachings strive to imbue individuals with an inclusive orientation transcend— ing—though not suppressing—other group loyalties and valuing the well—being of the entire planet and all its inhabitants. Throughout the Bahé’f writings, the vision imparted to the individual is that of a peaceful, just, and caring civilization whose Foundation rests on the cornerstone of the unity of all human beings, a unity that is to be consolidated and protected by institutions that reflect and promote the principles of unity. equality, and altruistic service as normative expectations.
Conclusion
As a community whose membership includes individuals from vir— tually every race, class, religion, ethnicity, and nationality, Bahé’is are laboring hard to bring about a global community based on constructive, altruistic social relationships. They believe that it is theifduty to strive towards the establishment of a moral order in which the pernicious aspects of human nature are overcome by the positive, spiritual tendencies inherent in every individual. From the Bath.“ perspective, real change towards a cooperative, progressive global community requires that the spiritual framework of society become strengthened. Nothing, Bahé’l’s believe, short of a legitimate commitment to the fortification of the spiritual nature of humans
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can hope to bring true and lasting happiness to human existence. Janet and Peter Khan, in their book, Advancement of Women: A Baird ‘1 Pmpertiue, explain,
To a Bahé’l, the ideal spiritual life does not conform to the traditional model of an individual engaged in solitary spiritual discipline, remote from interaction with other people and_ re— moved from the transactions of social life. Rather the Babe“ teachings direct attention to the interactive relationship between individual and social development, calling for a holistic approach in which the actions of the individual and of the social organ— ism mutually reinforce each other and give rise to evolutionary change."
The Bahé'l's envision a world commonwealth in which, as de— scribed by Shoghi EEendi, “the consciousness of world citizenship, the founding of a world civilization and culture continue indefi— nitely to progress and develop.”92 In that civilization, as a result of the “practical consequence of the spiritualiution of the world and the fusion of all its races, creeds, classes and nations,"‘” peace wil| be
established.
"‘ janer A. Khan and Peter]. Khan, Advancement of Wmmu! Babd't’l’mptt— tin: (Wilmette. IL: Bahé‘f Publishing Trust, 1998). p. 7.
9’ Shoghi Effcndi, WorM Order afBabd'u'lldb, p. 163.
”3 Ibid.. p. 162.
