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[Page 217]

WORLD UNITY

A Monthly Magazine for those who seek the world outlook

JOHN HERMAN RANDALL, Editor HORACE HOLLEY, Managing Editor

Contributing Editors

C. F. ANSLEY W. W. ATWOOD A. M. BARTHOLDT BABON BAUDRAN L. F. DE BEAUFORT GEERIT A. BENEKER PIERRE BOVET E. A. BURTT HARRY CHARLESWORTH No PooN CHEW RUDOLPH I. COPPER BAYARD DODOB GEORGES DUHAMEL ANNA B. ECKSTEIN HAVELOCK ELLIS AUGUSTS FORSL C. F. GATES V.S. GAVERNITE H. VON GERLACH H. A. GIBBONS KANLIL GIBRAN CHARLOTTE P. GILMAN JOHN W. GRANAM MARJA GRUNDMANN-KOSCIENSEA FRANK H. HANKINS A. EUSTACE HAYDON WILL HAT YAMATO ICHICHASHI MoaDecal W. Jomon Rupus M. Journ DAVID STARR JORDAN SAMUEL LUCAS Josn ERNEST JUDET VLADIMIR KABAPSTOPP P. W. Kuo RICHARD Las HARRY LEVI ALAIN LOCKS ERNEST LUDWIG GEORGE DE LUKACS Louis L. MANN SIR JAMES MARCHANT VICTOR MARGUERITTE R. H. MARKHAM ALFRED W. MARTIN F. S. MARVIN KIRTLEY F. MATHER LUCIA AMES MEAD FAED MERRIFIELD KARIN MICHAELIS HERBERT A. MILLER DRAN GOPAL MUKERJ IDA MOLLER YONE NOOUCHI H. A. OVERSTREET DEXTER PERKINS J. H. RANDALL, JR. M. D. REDLICH FORREST RID PAUL RICHARD CHARLES RICHET NICHOLAS ROERICH T. RUYSEN NATHANIEL SCHMIDT WILLIAM R. SHEPHERD MARY SIBORIST ABBA HILLEL SILVER ISIDOR SINGER DAVID G. STEAD AUGUSTS O. THOMAS GILBERT THOMAS ISABELLA VAN METER RUSTUM VAMBERY WALTER WALSH HANS WERDERO M. P. WILLCOCKS FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

CONTENTS

Seat of the League of Nations, Frontispiece

Editorial — America and Russia

Shambhala — Nicholas Roerich

The New Knowledge — John Herman Randall

Nationalism 1815-1870 — Herbert Adams Gibbons

Buddhism — J. Tyssul Davis

League of Nations and the Weak — Dexter Perkins

Heinrich Lammasch — Joseph Redlich

The Scientific Imagination — James H. Cousins

Pacifism in the Modern World — John Herman Randall, Jr.

World Unity Conferences

Round Table

WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE is published by WORLD UNITY PUBLISHING CORPORATION, 4 East 12th Street, New York City: MARY RUMSEY MOVIUS, president; HORACE HOLLEY, vice-president; FLORENCE MORTON, treasurer: JOHN HERMAN RANDALL, Mary. Published monthly, 35 cents a copy, $3.50 a year in the United States and in all other countries (postage included). Printed in U.S. A. Contents copyrighted 1930 by WORLD UNITY PUBLISHING CORPORATION. [Page 218]

Le Palais des Nations

SEAT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

From "Cloudlands of France," illustrated by Thornton Oakley.

Used by permission of Century Company. [Page 219]

AMERICA AND RUSSIA: THE GREAT ABYSS

THE retreating shadows of the age of strife lie thickest and darkest in the chasm that marks the opposed interests of America and Russia—a chasm the depth of which cannot be explained in terms of any previous international rivalry.

The long struggle between England and France, despite the vast influences released by the Napoleonic episode—the more recent opposition of England and Germany, even though it culminated in the European War—anticipate, without measuring, the differences that have steadily gathered between America and Russia since the fall of the Tsar. It is here that we must look for that vital menace so many people have attributed to the future relations of the United States and Great Britain.

Both America and Russia are centers of empire wielding effective influence far beyond their own enormous domains. The one champions the cause of the East, at the same time producing response in a large área of Western society; the other embodies the ideals and outlook characteristic of the West, while representing standards appealing to important interests and needs of the East. Their power as empires accrues less by political than by economic colonization, and less by economic dominance than by prevalence of a state of mind. Each alike has chosen to retain that freedom of action and initiative symbolized by repudiation of the League of Nations.

Of all peoples, moreover, Americans and Russians can be most swiftly impelled to national action in face of crisis—Americans by realization of common imminent peril, Russians by the momentum of an arbitrary state.

The profoundest differences loom in the historical experience [Page 220]and racial texture of the peoples themselves. Russia has been westernized only to the degree that it can make use of Western weapons and tools; its ultimate motives, its world view, remain rooted in the East. Its nomadic soul, combining mysticism and savagery, irresistibly attracts ruthless leadership for mass fulfilment. In America, insatiable personal ambition accepts leadership only in emergency, but realizes the power of social coordination for defense of conditions favoring individual success. At their highest and best, in a fully socialized world, Russia could contribute the value of spiritual love, America the value of balance between political and economic forces—a community dedicated to progress on the mental and material planes.

In the actual situation, the two peoples are alike committed to the maintenance, through constant and aggressive extension, of systems mutually exclusive, inherently contradictory, irreconcilable. Each has reduced religion, philosophy and culture to the needs of its own system. What Russia has accomplished in this respect by fiat, America has done no less thoroughly by pressure of public opinion.

Their antagonism is significant because no fundamental progress can be made by humanity without conflict between opposed human values. Dynastic and trade wars are as limited in result as in cause. The conflict between America and Russia goes into those depths whence humanity takes its lasting conceptions of what man is, hence what men may have, what men should do. The issue to be determined by this tremendous social polarity is whether human will is free and human association voluntary, or human will is merely response to external pressure, and association compulsory under rigid law. The experiments carried on elsewhere in the world, in Italy, England, China, even the League of Nations, seem subsidiary to the increasing tension between the two economic systems, the two political orders, the two states of mind—America and Russia. Eventually every lesser power will be swung into one or another major orbit. The world’s progress toward peace will in large measure result from conscious effort to create a bridge across this great abyss. [Page 221]

I SHAMBHALA

by NICHOLAS ROERICH

I mention the sacred word of Asia-Shambhala-you are silent. If I shall tell you the same name in Sanscrit-Kalapa -you are silent. If I shall tell you the name of the mighty Ruler of Shambhala-Rigden Japo-this thundering name of Asia will not move you. But it is not your fault. All indications about Shambhala are so scattered in literature. The oldest Vedas, the Puranas and a whole varied literature, affirms the extraordinary meaning for Asia of the mysterious word Shambhala. This word of the Great Shambhala or the mysterious Kalapa of the Hindus, sounds as the most real symbol of the Great Future. In these words about Shambhala, in legends, songs and folklore is contained what is perhaps the most important message of the East.

In 1924, a learned lama told us in front of the image of Rigden Japo: "Verily, the time of the great era is nearing and according to our prophecies the epoch of Shambhala has already begun. Rigden Japo, the Ruler of Shambhala, is already preparing his unconquerable army for the last fight. All his coworkers are already incarnated. Have you seen the tanka-banner of the ruler of Shambhala, showing his fight against all evil forces?

"When our Tashi-Lama had to flee from Tibet, he took with him only a few banners, but among them several banners of Shambhala."

A lama also told us: "Verily the old Prophecies are fulfilled. The time of Shambhala has come. For centuries it was predicted that before the time of Shambhala occurred, many wonderful events, many furious wars would devastate countries, many thrones would fall, many earthquakes take place and Panchen [Page 222]Rimpoche would leave Tibet. Verily the Time of Shambhala has come. The great war devastated countries, many thrones perished, earthquakes destroyed old temples of Japan and now our revered Ruler has left his country.

In 1027 A.D. one meets for the first time the teaching of Kalachakra, spread by Attisha. This is the great Yoga of using high powers, hidden in the human body and connecting them with cosmic energies.

A learned lama said: "The legend is taken from an ancient Tibetan book, wherein, under symbols, are given the future movements of the Dalai-Lama and Tashi-Lama, which have already been fulfilled. There are described the special physical marks of Rulers, under whom the country shall fall during the reign of the monkeys. But after the rule shall be regained and then will come Someone Great. His coming is calculated in 1936."

I am telling so as I have heard. We must know the things as they are in our days in several countries.

You can see from the following episode, how deeply one must understand the local feelings. Mrs. Roerich wanted to have an old image of Buddha. But this is difficult. Old images are very rare. We spoke about it only among ourselves in a foreign language. Great was our surprise, when a few days later a lama came. With a bow he took out from his coat a wonderful image of Lord Buddha, of Tibetan make, and presented it to Mme. Roerich, saying:

"Memsahib wanted to have an image of Buddha. In a dream there appeared to me the Blessed White Tara and ordered me to present you this image of the Blessed One, from my altar."

On the summits of Sikhim a lama like an old medieval carved image, pointed his finger toward the five summits of the Kitchenjunga and said:

"There is the entrance to the holy land of Shambhala. By subterranean passages through wonderful ice caves, only a few deserving ones, even in this life reached the holy place, where all wisdom, all glory, all splendour are accumulated"

Another lama told us about the wonderful asaras of Hindu [Page 223]origin, wearing long hair and white garb, sometimes appearing in the Himalayas-the wise men who know how to master the inner energies and to connect them with cosmic energies. The head of the Medical School in Lhassa, an old learned lama, knew such asaras personally and was in touch with them.

In old scriptures are found uplifting indications about a new era, about great avatars, coming for the salvation of humanity, about the sacred city Kalapa, about the efforts of the Arhats in every century to uplift the sleeping spirit of humanity. The same points we see in the Teachings of the Great Mahatmas, and in the scriptures and sagas concerning Shambhala.

It is remarkable to recognize links between the oldest Vedic traditions and the new conceptions of Milikan and Einstein. But we must not forget that even Buddha came to uplift the failing and corrupted form of culture and taught of finer Cosmic Energies.

In 1924 from Tibet came Mrs. David Niel who wrote of legends about Ghessar Khan, whose legendary personality stands beside Rigden-Japo, the Ruler of Shambhala, and has many links with him. She brought ancient prophecies about Ghessar Khan, how he collects faithful warriors and goes to cleanse Lhassa from the nefarious elements.

Crossing snowy passes, we saw again a picture of the future. Three caravans surrounded by sharp pointed rocks, stopped for the night. At sunset I saw a peculiar group. On a stone had been placed a colorful Tibetan Banner, around it were people in reverent silence. A lama pointed out to them something on this painting and rhythmically chanted. Approaching, we saw the tanka of Shambhala. The lama chanted about innumerable treasures of the King of Shambhala. About this miraculous ring bestowed by the Highest Powers. And outlining further the battle of Rigden Japo, the lama told how all evil beings shall unmercifully perish before the power of righteousness of the Ruler.

In Karashar we met the Tin-Lama, the head of the Kalmycks. With great astonishment he heard from us about Shambhala. He exclaimed: "Verily the great time has come. We all are ready to sacrifice all our possessions, everthing that may be useful [Page 224]for Shambhala. All riders will be mounted, when the Blessed Rigden Japo will need them.

In the Altai mountains, about fifteen years ago a young Oyrot girl had a vision. The Blessed Oyrot as a mighty rider on a white steed appeared and told her that he was the Messenger of the White Burkhan, the advent of whom was near!

The girl received from the Blessed One many revelations and proclaimed this new Teaching, asking her people to destroy the pagan altars and give up blood sacrifices.

In the same mountains one remarks another wonder concerning Shambhala. In the Altai district live many so-called old-believers. Persecuted for their old Christian beliefs, they fled into the thick forests during Patriarch Nikon's and Peter the Great's times.

In the middle of the XIXth century a strange message was brought to the Altai old-believers:

"In far away lands, behind the great lakes, behind the highest mountains, there is a sacred place where all truth is flourishing.

"There the highest knowledge serves the salvation of future mankind. And this place is called Belovodye, the white waters."

In secret scriptures the route to this place is outlined. Even in the wrong spelling you can distinguish the correct geographical direction, which again leads you to the Himalayas.

A grey-bearded old-believer, if he becomes your friend, will tell you: "From here you go between the Irtysh and Argun (rivers) and you will come to the salt lakes. Many people already perished in them. But if you will be able to traverse these dangerous grounds, you will arrive to the Bogogorshi mountains, and Kokushi. Then take the path over Ergor itself, up to the snowy land where in the highest mountains is a sacred valley. This is Belovodye. If your spirit is ready to reach this place through all dangers, the people of Belovodye will meet you."

After correctly spelling Irtysh and Argun, you can understand that the salt lakes are the lakes of Tzaidam. Bogogorshi or Bogogorye is the mountain range Burkhan Budda. Kokushi is the Kokushili range. Ergor of the highest upland is the [Page 225]

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cold Chantang near the Transhimalayas, already in view of the Eternal snows.

An old man leads us to a hill and says solemnly, pointing at the stone circles of ancient tombs: "Here the Chuds went underground. When the White Tzar came to our Altai and when the white birchwood began to bloom here, the Chud, unwilling to remain under the White Tzar, went underground. In the new era, when the people from Belovodye will return and will give to the people a new knowledge, then the Chud will return with all treasures."

In Buriatia and in Mongolia we were not astonished to find many signs about Shambhala.

Approaching Urga, the capital of Mongolia, we had to stay for one night at Iro, near a monastery. We asked about a fire, which appeared on the other side of the river, and quite an unusual reply came: "There is a big monastery causing wide wonder throughout Mongolia. Last year near this monastery was born a wonderful child. When it was one year old, it uttered in plain Mongolian a prophecy about the future."

When we entered Urga, near a temple we saw an open place surrounded by a palisade."What is this?"-And again came a surprising reply: "This place was purchased by an unknown lama for a future temple of Shambhala."

Another intelligent Buriat told us how a Buriat lama once after many difficulties reached Shambhala and remained there a short time. Among his unusual travels have been some strikingly realistic details. It is told that when this lama with his guide reached the very frontier of the sacred valley, they saw nearby a caravan of yaks with salt. They were regular Tibetan merchants. Unknowingly they passed quite near the wonderful place.

In the streets of Urga one meets a cavalry detachment of Mongolian troops, singing a calling song."What kind of song is it?"- "This is a song of Shambhala." "Verily the time of Shambhala has come!" [Page 226]Many other wonderful things have been told by educated Buriats and Mongols. They speak about the next appearance of the lost Chalice of Buddha. Of the miraculous stone coming from a far star, which is appearing in different places before great events.

Also in Urga we have heard from several sources about the visit of the Great Mahatma Himself, the Blessed Rigden Japo. to two of the oldest Mongolian monasteries. Erdeni-Dzo on the Orkhon river and Narabanchi.

Our Tibetan Konchock comes riding up and whispers: "Not far from here, when the Dalai-Lama went from Tibet to Mongolia, all people and animals began to tremble. And the Dalai-Lama explained that they should not be afraid, because they touched the forbidden zone of Shambhala and the vibrations in the air are uncommon to them."

We look around in amazement. We all felt a strong perfume as from the best incense of India. The Lama whispers: "The fragrance of Shambhala."

A sunny unclouded morning-the blue sky is brilliant. Over our camp is flying a huge dark vulture. Our Mongols and we watch it. One of the Buriat lamas points into the blue sky, shouting: "Look, a white balloon."

And we notice far up something shiny flying from northeast to south. With three powerful field glasses we watch the huge spheroid, shining in the sun, clearly visible against the blue sky, and moving very fast. Afterwards it sharply changes its direction from south to southwest, and disappears behind the snow-peaked Humbold chain. The lamas whisper, "The Sign of Shambhala!"

Near Shigatze, on the Bramaputra, in the direction of the sacred lake Manasaravar, even quite recently several ashrams of the Mahatmas of the Himalayas existed. Here are still living aged people, who remember their personal meeting with the Mahatmas. They call them Asaras and Kuthumpas.

Many Hindu, Chinese, and Japanese scholars know important things about the Mahatmas. But the reverence for the Master, [Page 227]

SHAMBHALA

which is so characteristic of the East, prevents them from revealing this to uninitiates. The meaning of the word Guru, the Teacher and Spiritual Guide, makes the subject of Mahatmas almost unapproachable in all Asia.

On ascending the Himalayas one is welcomed by the name of Shambhala—on descending, the same great conception blesses you.

The Teaching of Shambhala is a true Teaching of Life. As in Hindu Yogas, the Teaching shows how to use the finest cosmic energies.

"The Place of the Three Secrets," this conception brings the consciousness beyond the white ranges of the Himalayas.

Shambhala is the Place, where the earthly world links with the highest states of consciousness. In the East they know two Shambhalas—an earthly and an invisible one. The Tibetan name of Shambhala is Chang Shambhala, or Northern Shambhala. This is quite clear, for the Teaching was originally manifested in India, where everything coming from the Himalayas is naturally called Northern.

A learned lama, whose name became known in the West, told us how many questions and letters he was receiving from France, England, and America, asking for advice, how to come into contact with Mahatmas and how to receive Their Teaching.

Now, when every day we are amazed by the discoveries of physics by the power of oxygen, by the reality of the great Fire of Space, when from the summits there is proclaimed the Agni Yoga, then we can in full sincerity approach our friends in Asia, in the name of Coming Shambhala. With a happy smile we can greet the Great Future of Mighty Energies! The last call of our evolution is the imperative call for creative action, for enlightened labor, for achievements of knowledge and beauty on earth, without delay.

ience, Agni Yoga, coordinating the latest problems of points out signs of research of nature's elements and or finest energies. What but recently became commonly known as the teaching of will-power and concentration, has now been brought by Agni Yoga into a system of mastering the energies which [Page 228]surround us. Through an expansion of consciousness and by special training in everyday life, this synthetic yoga builds a happy future for humanity. Agni Yoga teaches: do not leave life, develop the faculties of your apparatus and understand the great meaning of the psychic energy-human thought and consciousness-as the greatest creative factors.

The Yoga teaches: in self-responsibility and in conscious cooperation let us strive towards the predestined evolution, but for this we must understand the joy of eternal labor, of incessant courage and of responsibility, realizing all our possibilities.

Indicating in most practical formulas all different sides of life, Agni Yoga reveals the nearness of elements, and especially of the all-penetrating Fire.

Agni Yoga separates reality from maya. Agni Yoga revolts against miracles, bringing phenomena into the realm of positive knowledge. "One must learn to organize psychic energies" (384) Agni Yoga affirms: "Let us be sincere, let us discard all prejudice and superstitions, which do not befit conscious man, wishing to investigate scientifically and to acquire knowledge."

Speaking of approaching influences of cosmic energies, Agni Yoga warns of peculiarities of the nearest future, of new forms of illnesses.

One can quote from Agni Yoga a great many indications of utmost importance, scattered as a precious mosaic.

"Have you learned to enjoy obstacles?"—what a powerful consciousness sounds through this vigilant call!

"For the future we arise out of sleep. For the future we renew our garments. For the future we sustain ourselves. For the future we strive in our thoughts. For the future we gather strength.

"We shall hear the tread of the element of Fire, but we shall already be prepared to master the undulations of the flame."

Thus the traveller of life is blessed by Agni Yoga, which has been given "in the valley of the Bramaputra, which takes its beginning from the lake of the Great Nagas, guarding the covenants of the Rig-Vedas."

Too long humanity remained in a low material state—they [Page 229]must hurry to acquire long predestined brilliant possibilities. You are struck when you remember that Edison's phonograph in 1878 was denounced in the Academie de France as a trick of a charlatan. We can still remember how the first motor cars were proclaimed impractical, how electric light was considered dangerous for the eyesight and telephones bad for the ear. With such difficulties mankind gets accustomed to new conceptions. Prejudice permeated the foundation of Society. Is it not beautiful if we can greet the old conceptions of Asia from our modern scientific point of view?

Millikan's cosmic ray, Einstein's relativity, Teremin's music from the ether are accepted by the East in a most positive way, because ancient Vedic and Buddhist traditions confirm them. Thus the East and the West meet!

World Unity, mutual understanding-these conceptions had seemed like dreams of an impractical optimist. But now even the optimist should be practical and the conception of world unity from the note book of the philosopher must enter real life!

If I ask you: "Let us be united," you will ask in what way? You will agree with me: in the easiest way, to create a common and sincere language. Perhaps in Beauty and Knowledge.

From my previous words you may see that in Asia the essential Teaching of Shambhala is a very vital one. Not dreams, but most practical advice, is given in this Teaching from the Himalayas. The Agni Yoga and several other books, in which fragments of this Teaching of Life have been given, are very near to every strong and searching mind. Some time ago so much was said about East and West, North and South. These were the words of separation. Truly, where is the real frontier between East and West? Why is Algeria in the East, and Poland in the West? And will not California be the Far East for China? Agni Yoga says:

"Do not divide the world by North and South, nor West and East, but distinguish everywhere between an old and a new world. The old and new world differ in consciousness, but not in outer appearance." [Page 230]I noticed with great joy that in the meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on February 5, 1929, the President of the Society, Dr. Rai Upendranath Brahmachari Bahadur, stated in his address: "The theory that 'East is East and West is West, and never the twain shall meet' is to my mind an old fossillized idea, not to be entertained."

So above all conventionalities, above all separation, there are to be seen some sparks of peaceful world unity. In the name of this peace of the world, in the name of peace for all, in the name of unity of understanding, it is a great joy to pronounce here the sacred word of Asia—"Shambhala."

You have noted that the conception of Shambhala corresponds to the strivings of the best Western scientific research. The ugly time of prejudice and superstition has now passed, and the true conception should be pronounced in the most positive laboratories of true scientists. In their striving the Eastern disciple of Shambhala and the best minds of the West, which do not fear to look beyond outlived methods, are coming together.

How precious is it to ascertain that the East and West are united in the name of free knowledge.

"In the name of beauty, of knowledge, the wall between the West and the East is vanishing."

From the depth of Asia is ringing the cord of the sacred call: "Kalagiya."

This means "Come to Shambhala!" [Page 231]

A WORLD COMMUNITY

The Supreme Task of the Twentieth Century by JOHN HERMAN RANDALL

The New Knowledge

TIS not alone, however, in the field of material progress that the new civilization has revolutionized our world. Science has given us the machine and the machine has created an industrial civilization which, in turn, has bound all nations together in an economic interdependence never known in the past. The achievements of science in the field of technology and invention are indeed amazing, and their results have completely transformed the entire material life of man. But even they are not to be compared in significance with what science has done in the broader field of our general cultural knowledge. This may be less apparent to the eye than are the ubiquitous signs of material progress, but is none the less convincingly clear to the intelligent mind.

When Francis Bacon first pointed out the importance of the experimental method as an approach to human knowledge, he was laying a foundation upon which the nineteenth century has built a marvelous structure indeed. In astronomy, in physics, in chemistry, in biology, in physiology and anatomy, in medicine and surgery, we have wrested the facts from nature by the experimental method, and the new knowledge thus gained has made obsolete every scientific textbook of a generation ago. The body of knowledge in these physical sciences has developed with bewildering rapidity. In this twentieth century we are fairly intoxicated with the wealth of this new knowledge. We await with keenest eagerness each new promise of discovery, and wonder [Page 232]at what is to come next. This modern age is alert with expectancy and on tiptoe with curiosity to see what tomorrow will bring There is no way of halting the steady advance of science, even if we would, and we would not if we could. For weal or for woe. science is here to stay to the end. Never before has man been possessed of such a profound preoccupation or such an intensity of desire to wrest from Nature all the secrets which she still conceals which may have a bearing on any slightest phase of material progress. Man has indeed come a long, long ways, since the days of Galileo and Copernicus, in his mastery of the forces of nature that play about him, but the end of his journey is still in the distant future.

When we turn to the social sciences, however, there is not the same cause for pride. In the knowledge of man, of his natural equipment and impulses, of all his manifold relations to his fellows, and especially, of the regulation and control of human relations in the interests of justice, cooperation and harmony. science is still in its infancy. It is this wide gulf between the brilliant development of the physical sciences on the one hand, and the almost stationary position of our knowledge of man on the other, that presents to the twentieth century its profoundest problem. If the scientific advance of the last hundred years had been more symmetrical, that is, if the social sciences had kept pace in their development with the physical, the difficult and complex problems which now confront mankind would not be so marked. As James Harvey Robinson has pointed out, Aristotle's treatises on astronomy, physics and chemistry have long since become obsolete, while his politics and ethics still represent the highwater mark of human thought.

Within the last generation, however, the social sciences have begun their real development. More thought and energy are today being devoted in the truly scientific spirit to anthropology, ethnology, sociology, psychology, economics and political science than ever before. There is not a college in the country in whose curriculum they do not appear, and an increasing number of students are turning to such studies. Although [Page 233]

THE NEW KNOWLEDGE

the experimental method is not as easily applicable to the study of mankind and its problems, research in all these fields is being rapidly developed. Foundations are established for carrying on investigations in special fields, and within the last few years a system of international fellowships in the social sciences has been organized on a comprehensive basis. It is as though the social sciences were trying with feverish haste to catch up with the more advanced physical sciences; but though the hope of the future lies in their future development, there is still very much to be desired.

In his recent book, The Old Savage in the New Civilization, Raymond Fosdick puts the need most clearly when he says:

"Social science today is still lacking in the fundamental groundwork of knowledge. It is still too largely based upon inspiration rather than upon facts. Consequently, social reform gropes in the dark where it should walk with assurance. It is as though engineers were at work without an adequate development of physics, or as though physicians were practising in the absence of biology and chemistry. So much of social science, too, is what Professor Robinson calls 'an orderly presentation of the conventional proprieties,' a timid and uncritical acceptance of beliefs and customs that have long since lost their value to mankind, at ever they had it, a rationalization of old prejudices and ancient mistakes and tribal taboos whose roots are buried deep in antiquity. Moreover, even when after long experiment and patient research the social sciences come to some conclusion that is capable of immediate realization in reshaping the practical relationships of men, this conclusion is not adopted, or is most grudgingly adopted. Man is so lethargic, so suspicious of innovation in everything that relates to himself, that only with difficulty can he be persuaded to desert any fraction of his inherited practices and routine.

"With the allegiance of our age and generation so completely committed to the physical sciences, we must face the fact that the social mechanism can be kept from cracking under the strain only as we develop the sciences that relate to man. Unless [Page 234]we can marshal behind such studies as economics, political science and sociology the same enthusiasm, the same approach, and something of the same technique that characterize our treatment of physics, and chemistry; unless the results of this research can be applied to human life as freely and boldly as we apply the physical sciences to modify our methods of living; unless we can free ourselves from prejudice and stale custom and harness intelligence to the task of straightening out the relations of man with his fellow men and promoting an intercourse of harmony and fairness—unless, in brief, in our generation we can make some appreciable progress toward this goal of social control, then pessimism has the better of the argument."

But with all its shortcomings, due to youth and the complexity of the social field, modern science is unquestionably the great unifying power in the world’s life today. If science be the systematized body of ascertained knowledge, then science must be universal; it recognizes no national boundaries and transcends all racial distinctions. We cannot conceive of a Chinese science, or a German science, a French science, or an American science. Science, in just so far as it is Science, must be one—a World Science. Until recently we have spoken of "Western Science," as if it belonged exclusively to the occident. But while modern science originated in the West, today the one thing that the countries of the East are demanding of the West as an unquestioned good is our science and technology. The same science that is taught in our laboratories at Yale and Harvard, at Columbia and Princeton, is being taught in the colleges and universities of Calcutta and Madras, of Shanghai and Pekin, of Tokio and Yokohama, and in just the same way.

Science today is only possible through the cooperation of scientific workers in all lands, and scientific results are only procured through the sharing and bringing together the conclusions, patiently and laboriously reached, by those in every country who are animated by this common purpose. If the new means of communication and the new civilization, both of which science has created, have served to make our world one, as previous [Page 235]

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chapters have illustrated, more subtly still have the spirit of scientific investigation and the cooperation of many minds that such investigation involves, served to foster the sense of a world unity in all that makes for scientific advance and the progress of real knowledge in every field of investigation.

But more explicitly, one hundred years ago, the knowledge we possessed of other nations and peoples was decidedly limited-superficial, inaccurate, and prejudiced. The East knew nothing about the West, and the nearest thing to actual knowledge that the West possessed about the East was the vivid tales brought back by explorers and travelers. It was long before the day of scientific histories of any nation, least of all, of those nations Iving beyond the confines of Europe; in fact, the new historian has but just begun to write the scientific histories which are fast making all earlier histories obsolete. Nothing was known, in the scientific sense, of the origin of races, and of their slow migrations into all parts of the globe, of the rise and development of the various race cultures, of the slow growth through many long centuries of the ancient civilizations, and of the many complex influences at work to produce languages, forms of government, social institutions and practices, laws, morals and religions, as they exist today outside of Europe and America. This whole vast field of investigation is but just now being opened up to scientific research, and the ancient past of the peoples of these other continents is still largely shrouded in mystery.

During the last generation, however, the "new historian" has turned his attention increasingly not only toward the peoples of Europe and America, but also of Asia and Africa and all the outlying parts of the earth. A flood of new light has been thrown upon the origins, migrations, development, civilizations and cultures of practically all peoples who inhabit this planet. There is now available a large mass of new knowledge of other peoples that was non-existent a generation ago, and it is steadily accumulating. This knowledge is rapidly banishing the old ignorance, superficial theories, pseudo-scientific conceptions and age-old prejudices that have separated the various groups of mankind. [Page 236]In 1853-55, Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau published his four-volume Essai sur l'inegalité des races humaines, proclaiming the superiority of the white over the colored races. It came at the time when the great interest in the origins of the "Aryans lent added zest to the romantic doctrines of the comparative philologists, and it enjoyed great popularity. The author was a literary man rather than a trained scientist. In fact, anthropology and ethnology, the sciences working in this particular field of races and race relationships, had scarcely begun to be scientific The essence of Gobineau's philosophy of history was briefly this: The supreme race among men is the Aryan, of which the Germans are the purest modern representative. All civilizations have sprung from conquests of weaker peoples by Aryans, and all have declined when the Aryan blood became diluted by inter marriage.

This conception of racial superiority, more recently attributed to the Nordics, has been widely preached of late years in this country, serving only to deepen race prejudice and hatred in large numbers of people. Such books as those of Madison Grant Lothrop Stoddard, Alfred Edward Wiggam, and others, which have had a wide reading in the last fifteen years, have been based upon this theory of racial superiority advanced seventy-five years ago by Gobineau. Such authors are in no sense scientists but literary men, and as such, they have given popularity to pseudo-scientific ideas, apparently in utter ignorance of the pro gress made by anthropology and ethnology in the last three quarters of a century. The recognized authorities in the matte of races and race-relationships are by no means these popula writers but, in this country at least, such men as Franz Boas Robert H. Lowie, Alfred L. Kroeber, A. A. Goldenweiser, Frank H. Hankins, etc., who in recent books have made available to the reading public the conclusions to which the scientific in vestigator of today has come, in regard to races and race rela- tionships.

In briefest summary, their conclusions are as follows: The older divisions of the races, among whom the Aryans were [Page 237]supposed to hold the supreme place, and the more recent division of Europeans into Nordics, Alpines and Mediterraneans, in which the Nordics are accorded the superior place, are more or less arbitrary, and are based on rough generalizations rather than on any clean-cut scientific distinctions. That there are racial differences is indisputable, but that these differences go back to any fundamental distinctions, either physical, mental or moral, is not admitted. In fact, it is claimed that no hard and fast line can be drawn between any of the races, as there has not existed for centuries any such thing as a "pure race."

From the biological viewpoint, the oneness of mankind is scientifically admitted. The scholars are agreed today that the human race with all its various differentiations, goes back ultimately to one common source. The cradle of the race is now supposed to have been in the ancient land of India, somewhere in the vicinity of the Himalaya mountains. From that source through pre-historic ages, early peoples wandered to and fro extending their migrations ever farther and farther, reaching at length even the western world-as witness the ancient ruins in Central America.

The differences that exist today between the various races of mankind-differences in language, in government, in institutions, in morals, in religion, in dress, in manners and customs, grew up gradually through a long period of time, and are due primarily to differences in environment, climate, soil, food, etc., as these primitive peoples became separated farther and farther from each other. But in spite of all these differences, developed through tens of thousands of years, the biological source of humanity is one; the same blood flows in all our veins. This last is no mere poetical statement; it is as hard a fact as any fact we know. We all, you and I and everyone, are but parts of one universal flow of life and blood.

With the evidences that we have of the wide wanderings of pre-historic tribes, and remembering the ceaseless movements of peoples to and fro on the earth's surface during historic times, with the inevitable intermarriage of individuals from different [Page 238]tribes and races constantly taking place, we are forced to realize how baseless is the idea that there is any such thing today as an essentially distinct, or separate, or "pure race." If any race has stood apart, it is such an isolated group as that of the now extinct Tasmanian primitives, or the Australian blacks. But even here in the early days of navigation, may have come shipwrecked mariners; or some half-breed woman kidnapped by wandering Phoenicians may have carried the link of blood back to the western world.

As Franz Boas has said, "The world has nothing to fear biologically, from the intermarriage of the races, for the simple reason that the races have long since become hopelessly mixed. What we have in every race, white, black, yellow or brown, is superior individuals; and what we have in every race, white black, yellow or brown, is inferior individuals. But the terms superior, or inferior, do not apply to races as such at all; only to individuals, regardless of race. The intermarriage of inferior individuals, or of one inferior and one superior, regardless of race is likely to be followed by inferior results. But the marriage of two superior individuals of different races is apt to yield superior results, oftentimes types that we regard as possessed of "genius." And on general grounds it may be claimed that race crossing on a more or less extensive scale has always preceded the development of a high state of culture. In other words, there is from the strictly biological viewpoint no sound argument against the inter-marriage of the races.

In the light of the new knowledge of the intellectual achievements of the various peoples of the earth, we are profoundly impressed with the essential like-mindedness of all men. So long as there were no easy means of communication between different portions of the globe, and men and nations lived of necessity separate and isolated lives, each group naturally worked out its particular problems in its own way. It is thus that the ideals of government, of social and economic systems, of science, of philosophy, of the arts, of morals and religion, were originally developed; each separate group slowly working out its ideals, [Page 239]theories and general systems of knowledge, independently, as if there were no other groups in the world.

In more recent times, however, with our modern transportation facilities and the resulting tremendous growth of travel, with the knowledge gained of other languages, the interchange of literature and the vast extension of commerce and trade, we realize how this old barrier of simple ignorance of one another is gradually being torn away; and we have discovered, with amazement at first, and later with joy, that all unconsciously these different races and nations of men have been working out their separate destinies in harmony with their particular environments. Some, to be sure, for obvious reasons have been moving more rapidly than have others; some have made greater progress and approached more nearly their ideals than have others; but the differences that exist are due to the reaction of the same human nature to different environments.

All men, however isolated, have from the beginning confronted the same universe of mystery, have been forced to face the same problems of human existence, and have been drawn to reflect upon the same experiences of the inner consciousness; and while the conclusions at which they have arrived by no means agree, owing to the absence of facts which the scientific method has alone revealed, still the original impulse, the mental processes involved, and the general aspiration have been essentially the same. As a result, there is but one conclusion to which we are forced: The human mind is one, the whole world round; its activities everywhere conform to the same laws of mind; its powers, given the same opportunities and an equal time for development, are practically the same for all men.

The comparative study of the world's great literature, so large a portion of which has but very recently been available to the western world, reveals the same like-mindedness everywhere—the same gropings for truth, the same heart-hungerings for beauty, the same outreachings for love and goodness. The history of the development of literature among all peoples follows the same general course. First and earliest come the folk-lore and [Page 240]legends, then song and poetry, and later the drama and the novel, the essay and the treatise. It is not to be wondered at that the same general themes run through all the world's literature, for it is the common drama of human life that everywhere seeks expression, and it is, in every age and clime, the same human nature that is revealed. The language of the world's literature differs, but the substance is always the same, for true literature speaks a universal tongue.

We have also learned that art, in all its different forms, is also universal, although it begins in the particular and finds expression in local or individual forms. The artist working at his canvas is seeking primarily to give expression to the artistic materials of his own people, to translate into form and color their traditional conceptions of truth and beauty. Insofar, art is particular; but the artist in just so far as he is the true artist, soon transcends the limits of his own conventions, and in his efforts to reveal the harmony and hidden beauties of his world, sooner or later reaches the plane of the universal where he is one with all true artists the world over. This is why we stand entranced before the great picture in the world's galleries, all unmindful of the race from which the artist came or the particular school he may represent, for the truth and beauty he reveals is beyond race or nation or school—the beauty for which all mankind have yearned.

It is the same with the musical composer who seeks to translate into sensuous sound the truth or the beauty "that never was on land or sea." He is striving to express the deepest that lies within himself, and in that particular striving, in just the degree that he is the real musician, he transcends the merely particular, and he also reaches the plane of the universal where music speaks a common language to which all hearts respond. That is why we thrill to the world's great music regardless of the race or nationality of the composer, content alone with the message which it brings.

So, too, the poet who seeks to translate into words and rhythm the lofty vision that has dawned on his soul begins his [Page 241]

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creative work on the plane of his particular group, but in just the degree that he is the true poet, he soon transcends the limitations of the particular and strikes the note of the universal that finds an echo in human hearts throughout the world. That is why there are a few volumes of poetry that we love to have within easy reach, and why we await with eagerness each fresh translation of the ancient poems of Persia, of India, of China or Japan.

But it is moral values that give the weightiest confirmation of the essential oneness underlying all the differences in the life of humanity; and that chiefly, because the unity we seek and that really exists, is itself a moral and spiritual thing. During the last century we have discovered that the greatest minds in all ages have ever been impressed by the essential spiritual unity of mankind, and have indeed been captivated by its profound significance and simple beauty. Out of this consciousness have grown all the great religions of the world in which we find, beneath all varying creeds and differing forms, the same universal outreachings after the highest and the same hungerings for righteousness.

In 1754 a Frenchman came across an old manuscript in the Royal Library of Paris, which proved to be a portion of the "Avesta." This led to further discoveries, and today, we have 183 manuscripts representing the sacred books of the Parsees or Zoroastrians. In 1787 the "Rig-Veda," part of the oldest Bible in the world, was discovered in India. This, with subsequent discoveries, has given us a total of sacred Hindu literature that is over four times the size of the Christian Bible. A little later, the "Pitakas," the sacred literature of the Buddhists, were discovered, which are eight times the size of our New Testament.

From these discoveries of the sacred literatures of the Orient, which have now been translated into some fifty volumes, accessible to all who care to read them, has come the modern study of comparative religions. This study has proved, beyond the shadow of a doubt, that all such moral sentiments as justice, temperance, truthfulness, patience, mercy, love, etc., far from being the peculiar property of one religion, are to be found [Page 242]inculcated in the Bibles of all religions. It has also discovered that the great spiritual sentiments out of which all religions have sprung—such as awe, reverence, wonder, aspiration, worship. the capacity for faith and hope and love, have found rich expression in all the varied systems of faith. It has also found that the Ten Commandments of the Old Testament and the Golden Rule of the New Testament are more or less and in slightly differing forms to be found in all these Bibles of the race.

One of the most significant concrete results of the translation of these sacred books of the Orient was the World’s Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893. Never since the world began was any such general meeting of representatives of all the world’s faiths on the same platform even deemed possible. The parliament was conceived and carried out by a Presbyterian minister of Chicago. The closing address was by a Swedenborgian, the final prayer by a Jewish Rabbi, and the benediction by a Roman Catholic Bishop. At the opening session there walked out on the platform, Roman Catholic and Protestant, Greek and Jew, Confucian and Buddhist, Mohammedan and Parsee, Baptist missionary and Hindu monk—one hundred and twenty-eight couples—all marching in one grand triumphal procession of human brotherhood.

The effect of the parliament was singularly profound upon all who attended any of its sessions. To the non-Christian it conveyed a truer conception of the Christianity that had sent them the missionary and the Bible, but had also brought them the battleship, opium and rum. The effect on the Christians present was still more striking. The spiritual conceit that had formerly prayed, “Oh Lord, we thank Thee that we are not like these pagan idolators,” was removed forever from the hearts of all who watched and listened. They discerned heights of spirituality and depths of moral insight, reached by these so-called “heathen,” of which most of them had never dreamed. They found among all these various delegates from different and opposing religions the same expressions of worship, of ethical teachings, of spiritual development and of religious ideals that exist, under different [Page 243]

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forms, in Christianity; and their hearts cried out irresistibly, "Are we not indeed all children of one Father?" Gautama and Zoroaster, Confucius and Mohammed, may be less known to most of us than Moses and the Prophets, Jesus and Paul, yet we have come to see the essential unity underlying all their teachings and at the same time their unique and distinctive contributions to man's religious experiences. Whether it be the Papuan, squatting in dumb meditation before his feathered god; or the Aztec, dancing and chanting before his symbolical block; or the Moslem, prostrate in his mosque; or the Christian, kneeling in petitional prayer to his Father in Heaven; or the cosmic theist, silently seeking communion and at-one-ment with the Infinite and Eternal whence all things and beings are derived—in each case it is one and the same impulse leading one to seek to relate himself more intelligently with the universe about him, and to come into more harmonious relation with his fellows everywhere.

With our scientific knowledge today that the human race is biologically one, and that our different races and nations are but "bubbles and clusters of foam upon the great stream of the blood of the species, incidental experiments in the growing knowledge and consciousness of the race"; with all the new knowledge that we have gained in the last century through research and investigation, through the increase of travel, and through widespread study and observation of the cultural life of other peoples, the unmistakable tendency among all intelligent men and women has been toward a better understanding and a truer appreciation of all who live on this planet. In six great phases of the cultural life of man—in philosophy and science, in art and literature, in music and in religion—it needs no uncommon vision to see the inevitable drift toward a yet closer brotherhood and truer fellowship. Every fresh step that is taken in the widening of human knowledge as it applies to human beings only tends to lower the barriers of ignorance and fill in the gulfs of prejudice that have for so long divided us from our fellows. [Page 244]But even more significant than the likenesses that exist between the various peoples is the knowledge that we have gained of their differences. The various races and race cultures that have developed through long centuries, in different environments and in parts of the world widely separated from one another, have inevitably tended to stress certain ideas and ideals in the life of one people, while others are stressed to a different degree elsewhere; it is also true that different environments through long periods of time call out different traits of character; so that we recognize what we call racial traits and national traits, just as we do individual traits. This is especially true of the cultural life of a people; while the literature and art, the music, the morals and religion of all peoples are fundamentally the same, yet each has followed a somewhat different line of development among various peoples. Therefore every race and people has some unique and distinct contribution to make to the general cultural life of man.

In the light of these differences and unique distinctions in peoples, our scholars are helping us to see today that the ultimate culture of this world is not going to be made up exclusively of Anglo-Saxon culture, or Teutonic culture, or Slavic culture, or Chinese or Indian culture. The ultimate culture of the world, as knowledge grows and appreciation broadens, will eventually be made up of the bringing together and the blending together of the highest and best elements in the cultural life of all peoples. As Mazzini once said, "God has written a sentence in the life of every people." And what we are trying to do today, by research, by study and by travel is to interpret rightly that unique something that has been developed in the life of every people; for we well know that we can ill-afford to lose one single word of any sentence that has thus been "written in the life of any people" the whole world round. [Page 245]

NATIONALISM AND INTERNATIONALISM

by HERBERT ADAMS GIBBONS Historian

Nationalism in Europe from 1815 to 1870

OF THE periods of history during which the development of the spirit of nationality and the evolution of nationalism can be traced, the fifty-five years between Waterloo and Sedan are the most important in tangible results. It was during this half century that Germany and Italy became nations, that Belgium was created, that the Christian states of the Balkans were formed, and that the national movements that were to spell doom to the Hapsburg, Hohenzollern, Romanoff, and Ottoman dynasties, assumed definite form.

No author, however able in his power of summarizing, could tell within the limits of a single chapter all the wonderful and moving story of this period. We can give only brief glimpses of these factors in the development of nationalism, and trust that they will tempt you to study nineteenth century Europe.

After Napoleon's exile to Elba, the victorious coalition sent representatives to Vienna to make a new map of Europe. They had summarily swept away Napoleon's "kings as officers," with the exception of Bernadotte, who had turned against his master and had joined the victors before Leipzig. The statesmen were in the midst of their work, when Napoleon made his dramatic return. France, you remember, rallied around him. He won back both his throne and his army without a shot having been fired. This event, one of the most striking in history, should have warned the peacemakers that the world could not be restored to the 1789 status. It was not Napoleon that they had to dread, but the working out of the principles of the French Revolution. [Page 246]Napoleon went down to defeat at Waterloo, and was exiled to St. Helena. He was disposed of definitely. But when the Congress of Vienna reassembled after the Hundred Days, the ugly fact of what had happened in France, of what had imposed a new campaign upon the British and Prussian armies, haunted the negotiators like a spectre. They had a profound distrust of the common people of France, and this time Napoleon had been put where he could do no more mischief. But what had made the people whom he had sent to slaughter through years, and in the long run futilely, welcome back this man whom they should have known could bring them only further humiliation? Fear of losing what they had gained by the Revolution is the answer.

The Act of Vienna was not so drastic for France as might have been expected, after what France had done to all her neighbors. France was not punished and crippled, as the Entente Powers punished and crippled Germany a hundred years later. She was a party to the negotiations. What Talleyrand had to say was listened to and taken into consideration. All the powers, except England, were reactionary; and they did not want to discredit and make untenable the position of the Bourbon whom they had restored to the throne of France. The French were rewarded for accepting the restoration of the old dynasty.

As always, England wanted profits outside of Europe. When she has intervened in continental Europe, it has never been spontaneously or because of particular interests on the Continent that she had to safeguard. Whatever state in Europe has threatened to become the dominant power, Great Britain has intervened on the side of the enemies of that power, because she felt that her security and prosperity depended upon no one nation in Europe being dominant. You remember that her statesmen were not unduly exercised over the danger to Louis XVI in 1792, and refused the first invitation of Prussia and Austria to form a coalition against France. But when the French Revolutionary armies were in control of Belgium, England intervened. The Germans should have thought of history repeating itself in 1914!

After wars in which she was an ally of Continental coalitions, [Page 247]

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Great Britain's policy has been to say to the victors whom she was helping, "You can fix up the European situation in such a way as to clip the wings of this pretender to European hegemony, and reward yourselves, but not so much that you will scare us the way the defeated state has done. We do not want to have poured out our blood and treasure simply to substitute one nightmare for another. Although we have been the deciding factor in the victory—you could not have won it without us—we do not want to dominate the Continent politically or commercially, and we have no ideas of revenge. We shall take our reward in tidbits that lie outside of Europe."

Russia, Prussia, and Austria were the three powers of the coalition to whom England was willing to entrust the control of Europe, provided she got confirmation of her title to Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, Trinidad, and Ceylon. The three emperors and their statesmen, all of whom had suffered humiliation from the invasion of the French armies, were satisfied with the life imprisonment of Napoleon, and with the comparatively mild treatment accorded to France in the Act of Vienna. They had intervened in France in the early days of the Revolution to save the monarchical institution and to combat political ideas which they believed were subversive of the existing social order. In 1815 they interpreted the victory as "Divine intervention" on behalf of rulers, and they determined to form a Holy Alliance to revive and reestablish permanently the dynastic principle. Nationalism had threatened to weaken their power and overthrow them. The fall of Napoleon saved them. The contest was postponed for a century, although there were continual skirmishes. It was renewed in acute form in 1914.

The houses, of whom the three emperors were the heads, had assembled their territories on the dynastic principle. The kingdom of Prussia no more than the empires of Austria and Russia had grown to its proportions of 1815 by ethnic evolution. People of the same race and language had not just gradually come together in one political organism. Austria had been in Belgium, and controlled widely separated territories in the old confines of the Holy [Page 248]Roman Empire. Only a few years before the Revolution Frederick the Great had made Theresa share Silesia. These facts show how geographical considerations in the formation of states have been ignored. Two of the three partitions of Poland took place after the Revolution began. This violation of both ethnic and geographical principles, which Napoleon had tried to upset, was confirmed in the Act of Vienna. That the ethnic principle in itself did not count in the face of the desires of the victors was shown by Austria’s retention of the territories of the Venetian Republic and Great Britain’s taking Malta for a naval station.

The Act of Vienna revoked all the treaties made between France and the rest of Europe since the beginning of the Revolution. Prussia and Austria were confirmed in their shares of the Polish partition, and the Kingdom of Poland was placed under the crown of Russia. Prussia not only got back Westphalia but extended her Rhineland control down to, and including, the Saar. The omelet in South Germany could not be unscrambled: that achievement of Napoleon was allowed to stand to the profit of Baden, Wurrtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony. Austria emerged from the conference as the mistress of northern Italy.

The Holy Alliance was formed with two aims: (1) preservation of the territorial status quo of the Act of Vienna; and (2) the reestablishment of the political order of 1789. Neither was possible. The world had gone forward too fast. Territorially, Central Europe was bound to move toward unification, with political organisms in which both ethnic and geographical factors would be decisive. The delightful inconsistencies of diplomacy were revealed at Vienna. Although Austria, Prussia, and Russia had announced the intention of going back to the boundaries of 1789, they never seriously considered restoration in any case in which they would be the losers. Prussia and Austria were gainers by what Napoleon had done in South Germany and North Italy. They did not see at the time that they would eventually have to settle on the battlefield between themselves the question of their relations to Napoleon’s German buffer states.

The second part of the program of the Holy Alliance was the [Page 249]

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restoration of the internal political status quo of 1789 throughout the world. It centered around the personality of Metternich, who was, for more than a generation, a symbol of reaction and political oppression, and the leader of the forces that attempted to combat the rising tide of nationalism.

The idea of Metternich was that the internal political status of all countries should be restored to the 1789 basis, and then be guaranteed internationally by the powers so that there should be no change within a country in dynasty or form of government. This amazing conception was built, first of all, upon the evident self-interest of all the victors, including Great Britain, to see the Bourbons firmly in the saddle in France. Only in this way could a conspiracy of Napoleon's family or other followers be made impossible. The allies did not want another Hundred Days. Then there were the other rulers to be restored—in Spain, Holland, Naples, Sardinia (including Piedmont), and the duchies of Italy. A long time had elapsed since the rulers were driven out, except in Spain, and Jacobinism, with its new political principles, had taken root in all the countries on whose thrones Napoleon had put "kings as officers."

Metternich decided to call the signatories of the Act of Vienna to international congresses from time to time, in which they would consider "the state of Europe" and arrange to take measures in common wherever either territorial boundaries or internal political status quo was threatened. In trying to get the boundary provisions of a treaty internationally underwritten, Metternich was, unconsciously perhaps, just like Napoleon, proposing internationalism to check nationalism. It was a new form of the United States of Europe. This type of internationalism always appeals to upholders of a status quo by which they benefit.

The tremendous increase in the ability to read made it possible in Europe after 1815 to continue to spread the principles of the Revolution. It gave propagandists for constitutionalism and nationalism the means of spreading their ideas. A Mazzini or a Victor Hugo in exile, when the people could read, was as much to be feared as if he were home. A Silvio Pellico in prison could [Page 250]write so graphically that his readers felt that they, too, were suffering loss of liberty.

Steam power, introducing the factory era and later increasing immeasurably facilities of communication, was a force with which the statesmen of Vienna and their successors could not cope Industrialism literally drove people together, making their very existence dependent upon a large and powerful political unit.

The liberation of Lombardy and the overthrow by Garibaldi of the despotic ruler of Naples resulted in the formation of the constitutional monarchy of Italy, with Victor Emmanuel as King. But much remained yet to be done. Austria still held the province of Venetia and the rest of the inheritance of the Venetian Republic. The Pope ill ruled in Rome, which all the leaders of the Risorgimento declared would have to be the capital of the new Italy. Without Venice and Rome Italy was not yet a united country. The opportunity to get Venetia came when Prussia and Austria went to war in 1866. Prussia compelled Austria to surrender Venetia to Italy in the Treaty of Prague.

But Napoleon III, who had helped in the emancipation of Italy, did not dare to go against the strong Catholic feeling in French government circles. He had promised to sustain the Pope and this he did by sending a garrison to Rome to protect the temporal power of the Papacy. But when France was defeated by Germany in 1870, the garrison was withdrawn. Victor Emmanuel then marched into Rome, disregarding papal protests and made it the capital of the united Italy. The two last stages o German and Italian unification thus coincided.

What changes in fifty-five years! Metternich proposed, but nationalism disposed. [Page 251]

ONE RELIGION-MANY FAITHS

by J. TYSSUL DAVIS Theistic Church, London

Buddhism-The Religion of Compassion

"As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects her only child, so let the disciple cultivate towards the whole world, above, below, around-a heart of love unstinted, unmodified by any sense of differing or opposing interests."-Metta Sutta.

"Let all the sins that have been committed in this world fall on me, that the world may be delivered."-A saying of the Buddha.

"Never will I seek, nor receive salvation for myself alone; never will I enter into final peace alone; but for ever and everywhere will I live and strive for the universal redemption of every creature throughout all worlds. Until all are delivered, never will I leave the world of sin, sorrow and struggle, but will remain where I am."-A Chinese prophetess.

BUDDHISM has the advantage of having been presented to English readers through such persuasive channels as Sir Edwin Arnold's Light of Asia, Henry Fielding's Soul of a People and Lafcadio Hearn's Gleanings in Buddhist Fields. But the charm of such works lies primarily in the subject. Buddhism, derived from the immense compassion of a great lover of human and sub-human life, carries with it the spirit of gentleness and grace. Historically, Buddhism is the daughter of Brahmanism, as Christianity is the daughter of Judaism. Jesus found in the noblest scriptures of his race the law which he came to fulfil, not to destroy; and built upon that foundation a fairer edifice of religious faith; so Gautama took over from Brahmanism its fundamental principles and expanded its teaching into a way of life that made men less the victims of an iron system and more humane helpers of their kind. For the doctrine of Karma sometimes has the effect of making believers feel bound in the prison of the consequences of their own acts; and of making one too ready to accept the ills of life as inevitable; thereby paralyzing redemptive effort. So Gautama came preaching liberation, as Jesus later came [Page 252]to preach salvation. But whereas the Galilean prophet, after one year's ministry (or at most three years), met his death through the opposition and animosity his reforms aroused, the Saint of the Sakyas (Sakya-muni) was left in peace to a good old age to promulgate his teaching and establish and increase his order Though born 600 years before the accepted date of the birth of Jesus, it is evidence of the wise toleration which prevailed in Gautama's day, that the Brahmins allowed him full freedom to propagandize. They took deep interest in his teaching, and many became his disciples. The Brahmanic thinkers had no difficulty in adopting the Buddha as one of the Avatars (divine incarnations whose advent is commemorated or prophesied in their scriptures But in the course of time, as Buddhism became corrupted by adoption of gross popular elements, it was driven out of India. Elsewhere, Buddhism received ample compensation. Her teachers carried the good tidings to other lands, until it spread over Nepaul, Thibet, China, Japan. This is known as Northern Buddhism. Others went southwards and established the faith in Ceylon, whence it extended to Burma and Siam. This Southern Buddhism developed in its own way, emphasized almost exclusively the ethical aspect of the faith, and gradually lost sight of its Theistic basis.

To be a Buddhist in this respect, it is sufficient to accept the five pledges which are daily repeated, and strive to follow them They are (1) Reverence for life, not to slay any living thing (2) Honesty, not to take anything which has not been given. (3) Chastity, or fidelity in marriage. (4) Truthfulness-to speak no lie. (5) Abstinence from alcohol and drugs.

The code may not appear inspiring; it is the spirit of goodwill. the motive of pity, the well-spring of love that are its life and inspiration. To go without beef or beer may not sound entrancing as a road to salvation: it is the outlook on life implied in these five simple rules that allures. Chanted in the gloom of the temple where a gift of flowers has been placed on the altar, over which the face of everlasting serenity looks down in benevolence, linking the daily duty to the bliss of Nirvana, and the daily effort to [Page 253]

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the liberation of the world, it is the root of reverence that transfigures their commonness into radiance, their greyness into glory.

The development of Northern Buddhism, on the other hand, anticipates the kind of changes which converted Christianity into organized Roman Catholicism. There is an equivalent to the Pope, the Dalai Lama who is the Vicegerent on earth of the Lord Buddha. In his journey through Thibet, Father Huc was amazed to find every symbol, rite, and custom which he deemed the exclusive possession of Romanism in use in the alien religion. The cross, the mitre, the cope, the dalmatica, incense, psalmody, the form of benediction, the system of celibacy, the monastic order, the adoration of saints, fasts, processions, litanies, holy water—all these had long flourished as a result of the High Churchmanship of the older religion. For human nature is the same in Thibet as in Italy, and both in Buddhism and in Christianity the same histrionic instincts have demanded expression.

Southern Buddhism is the Low Church division. Its exclusive emphasis on ethical worth has laid it open to the charge that it has no God, no idea of a continuing soul, and that its Nirvana means annihilation. Such a description is a dismal travesty. God in terms of the Athanasian creed, and a soul to be rescued from the devil and his hell, and a heaven whose bliss is playing hymns in four flats on stringed harps, it decidedly has not. But there could never be a Buddhist doctrine of rebirth and a doctrine of liberation without the idea of something to be liberated and something to be reborn whether the continuing ego be regarded as a soul or a number of skandhas; some bond of identity that makes it possible for a Buddha to remember all his past lives. The temples of Southern Buddhism represent scenes in the worlds after death. And how can Nirvana, which has the characteristics of "permanence, personality, joy and purity," which is the summit of human evolution, the intensification of consciousness, the unutterable ecstasy of perfected humanity realizing its divine nature, how can it be interpreted in terms of a candle going out? Yet the word implies a dying-out of a flame, the fire of anger, of lust and pride. Pitiful exigency, that such a state can only be [Page 254]described in negative terms. In terms of human limitation, Nirvana is, of course, negation. No pain, no suffering, none of the experiences of physical consciousness, no bodily sensation, no emotion, no thought, but something far transcending anything we understand by these words. Further, the whole system of Buddhism implies a cosmos, a moral order, a universe ruled by intelligence, in which love is final victor.

But Gautama, who had himself attained Buddhahood, and I was destined to enter Nirvana, was far more concerned with getting folk on the way than with painting pretty pictures of the goal. He knew men could gain release from everything that worries and wearies them, from everything that burdens and bruises them, and drives them to distraction and despair.

"I, Buddh, who wept with all my brothers' tears, Whose heart was broken by a whole world's woe, Laugh and am glad, for there is Liberty!"

He had found the way of escape. He did not make light of human misery. He did not ask men to ignore it, to make believe it was not there, to charm it off with phrases. He knew how real it is to the sufferer. He had heard the still sad cry of suffering humanity. It had rent his heart, wrung his pity to the depths.

There are sensitive people who are very pained by some special kind of suffering. They think of the sweated in Whitechapel. Others think of the miners in the dark places of the earth. Others think of the waifs and strays worse than the fatherless and motherless. Others think of the agonies of the beasts, subject to a host of cruelties.

We take the burden in instalments. Our own adopted bale is heavy enough. But here was a man who in his own person, by extension of consciousness, had felt the sorrow of the whole creation, not only human and sub-human but, according to the sacred books, the innumerable denizens of other worlds. For they were all more or less bound in the bonds of manifestation. They were all fettered in grosser or subtler matter. They were all under [Page 255]

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sentence of life. They were all carrying the cross of limitation. And limitation is partial consciousness. And that means ignorance. And ignorance is sin. And sin is suffering.

S. Paul in agony cried: "Who will deliver me from the body of this death?" Here was one who knew how it was to be done.

Buddhism has made its way in the world because it is a religion of solace, of compassion, of sweetness and light. For the same reason that the common people neard Jesus gladly, did they also flock to the lotus feet of the Blessed Teacher and his benign and gentle disciples, who came out of sympathy to bring the way of peace to the heavy-laden, and the balm of love to the distressed. The result is that Buddhism can claim the largest number of adherents in the world, in fact, one-third of the human race. And it is important to remember in connection with this result, as a point of distinction from Muhammadanism and Christianity, the conversion was never attempted by force. Its conquest has been the conquest of gentleness. Its propaganda sheer persuasiveness. And it has the transcendent right of being able to boast, if boast it were inclined, that during the whole course of its 2,400 years of existence, it has never persecuted; its record alone is clean from the stain of blood. No other religion can make that boast.

In fact it would be contrary to the tenets of Buddhism. For the first pledge of the Buddhist is that under no circumstances will he take the life of any creature. He deems all life sacred. Every living thing is on the path of progress. To arrest this upward development is a crime. Slaying for food, vivisection, sport, are not Aryan. It is the privilege of the advanced life to protect and help the lower.

So careful is the Buddhist Bhikshu in this matter that, though his whole outfit consist of only eight articles, among these is a strainer, so that when he drinks water from a well, he may not sacrifice to his thirst the smallest of visible organisms. Among the Jatakas, the stries of the Buddha’s previous lives are tales of his sacrifice to save the lives of beasts. It is questionable if any religious teacher has succeeded in impressing his own beautiful nature so indelibly upon his followers as the Christ of India. [Page 256]Emerson says every institution is the lengthened shadow of one man; and the saying applies eminently to Buddhism. What his Lord and Master was, is the ideal of every Buddhist. And even in Southern Buddhism the five precepts or pledges are never repeated without first addressing the Blessed Teacher in a threefold ascription of love and honor. The Buddha-ideal has been a more potent force than the Christ-ideal, because the Buddha has not been deified as Christians have deified their Christ. The Buddha never outstepped the path of human progress. There was no special grace or favoritism shown to him. He became what he was by patient effort spent over hundreds of lives. He attained Buddhahood as all men may do. He began as savage man. He ended as Lord of the three worlds.

When this mighty soul entered a human body for the last stage of existence, he was born as son of a king of the Sakyas (whence “Sakya-muni” saint of the Sakyas), and all nature is said to have rejoiced at his birth. Just as the Nazarene was named Jehoshua (Jesus) because it was foretold that he would be a saviour, so this child was named Siddhartha—“he would accomplish his purpose”—because of a prophecy that he would be an enlightener of the nations of the earth as a result of attaining Buddhahood. But his father had other ambitions for him. He wanted him to extend the kingdom, be monarch over a larger realm. With that object he did everything to stupefy the boy’s serious nature, surrounded him with every enticement of luxury, held him captive in a splendid prison of sensuous satisfaction. But unto this palace of pleasure, the Invisible Helpers of Humanity are said to have wafted the winged seeds of discontent. The desire to see the world as it was rose insistently within him, and though a decree went forth that when he should go abroad, nothing but what was fair and young should come to view that day, destiny arranged that Siddhartha should witness things that could not but profoundly stir him. He saw an old man, and he asked what that half-blind, tottering and palsied creature might be. He saw a youth suffering from a horrible disease. He saw a corpse. And he realised that these pictures of misery, hitherto [Page 257]

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concealed from his eyes, were the habitual and inevitable attendants of human existence; that all men pass along the dolorous way, and intertwined with mortality were pain and sorrow and death.

The fair companions of his youth, his bride, himself, all were subject to this doom of disease and death. Then broke forth within him the pent-up flood of affection and pity generated through many ages, for a world enslaved to trouble and misery; and he resolved, if way there be, he would find the way by which men might escape this direful doom. He would not rest until the secret of liberation had been found, which all humanity might share.

He left the life of royal delight, became a wanderer in a long and weary quest, a disciple at the feet of every teacher who claimed to answer the riddle of the universe. He gathered their lore, until he had become more learned than his teachers. He pursued their practices till he had outreached their ardor; but all the cunning of the intellect, all the rigors of asceticism, could not win the pearl of great price.

Only when he had gone into solitude, and had brought himself to the brink of death in anguish of lonely meditation, did the secret of human woe dawn upon his solitary spirit. He saw that to exist in a material body is to be under the limitations of matter, yet while the desire of such existence remained, one was bound to come back tied to the wheel of birth and death. But man could kill out this lust of life, could transcend its tyrannical sway, could triumph over decay and death. So he came back amongst men to teach the way of liberation. And all those whom life had badly hit, who had tasted its bitterness, suffered disenchantment and disillusion and wearied of its vanities, turned avidly to his promise of rest, and in the serenity of his presence felt assured there was balm for their wounds and surcease for their sorrow. For he embodied his teaching, was its proof, the authentic Witness. They saw how, when abused, he reviled not again; when confronted with opposition, he forgave the blindness, the ignorance that withstood him. They bathed in the glow of his divine compassion. They saw him all grace and tenderness, strong in truth and [Page 258]pity; every word dropping the dews of mercy, every act a leaf from the Tree of Healing. They felt that in him was a tower of strength against which every tempest raged in vain.

They were caught up by this evangel of goodwill toward all living things, they moved in an atmosphere of great Love and Peace in which all miseries dissolved and became a mist of glory. and from the touch of his spirit, they knew that to quench desire that leads to passion and envy and anger and greed was the way to freedom. To give all; to be without that others may enjoy; to renounce all things; to efface self; to extinguish all desire-this was the way, the truth, the life.

Such a religion makes but a faint appeal to the fresh and happy children of destiny. To a young soul, avid for more concrete experience, in the flush of energy, it is only by way of ethical guidance that Buddhism can be of valid use. Such an one needs a gospel of health, of prosperity, of success. But to the soul over whom many waters have passed, in whose hands the golden apples of the dreams of youth have turned to dust, whose memory is full of broken idols and pitted with graves, Buddhism makes an irresistible appeal. For across the waste of the years shines the beautiful Face with its vast pity and invincible beatitude, lit like the evening star after a day of strife, and the voice is musical and alluring, and like that other with its accent of benediction, bids them "come unto me, all ye that weary and are heavy-laden, and I will give you rest." A rest more secure than the bliss of heaven, a rest profounder than paradise, a silence diviner than music, a darkness diviner than light-the ineffable state of Nirvana. [Page 259]

THE QUEST OF WORLD PEACE

by DEXTER PERKINS Department of History and Government, University of Rochester

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND THE WEAK

THE critics of the Treaty of Versailles and of the other peace treaties frequently call attention to the injustices committed in the drawing of new territorial boundaries. By these injustices, it is alleged, racial minorities are handed over to the domination of ruthless majorities, and the tranquillity of Europe endangered for the future.

Without denying that the settlements of 1919 are very far from ideal settlements, admitting, indeed that there have been some cases of ruthless oppression of minority groups, as, for example, the treatment of the German-speaking populations of the South Tyrol, there are several general observations that ought to be made with regard to the present map of Europe. In the first place it is to be observed that the racial minorities are far less numerous than they were in 1914. The map of Europe today conforms far more nearly to the principle of nationality than it did fifteen years ago. Indeed, the progress is very notable in this regard. In the second place, (and this is of capital importance), it is a physical impossibility so to construct the map of Europe as to avoid entirely the creation of a minority problem. The various peoples are so intermingled that no ideal solution of the problem of nationality is possible. There never has been and never can be a territorial settlement which will please the strongly nationalistic elements in all of the European states. It is useless to base one's view of the Europe of the future upon the complete realization of every national aspiration. [Page 260]In such circumstances, the logical course would seem to be not constantly to agitate for the re-drawing of frontiers that can never be entirely satisfactory, but to devise machinery by which, under the existing treaty arrangements, the position of racial minorities may be made a more agreeable one than it has frequently been in the past. Such a policy has, to a considerable extent, actually been followed. In its evolution the League of Nations plays an important part, and may play a still more important part in the future.

Let us examine this policy in some detail. At the time of the signing of the peace treaties, there were also negotiated some ten international compacts regulating the status of minorities. These treaties were concluded between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers on the one hand, and Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia, Rumania, Greece, Armenia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey, on the other. They established certain general principles with regard to the treatment of national minority groups. Such groups, for example, are to enjoy not only the fundamental right to life and liberty on the same terms as the dominant race, but also the right of public and private worship, the right to use their own language so far as may be necessary in the courts, the right to equality before the law, in the seeking of public employment, in the practice of the professions and in the pursuit of industry, and, in those districts where they constitute a considerable part of the population, the right to primary schools in which the instruction will be carried on in their own language, and the right to participate to a reasonable degree in the funds allotted by the state to charitable or educational purposes.

The protection of these special rights is the duty of the League of Nations, acting through the Council. According to the terms of the original treaties, a question involving the construction or execution of the minority pacts might be brought before the Council by any member thereof, and disputes thus arising were made a matter of compulsory reference to the International Court of Justice.

In actual practice the League has gone beyond the provisions [Page 261]

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of the original agreements. Not only may a state which is a member of the Council bring up a question involving the observance of these special compacts, but minority groups themselves may appeal to the League through the Secretariat. The form of their petitions is carefully regulated. The question on which an appeal is taken must fall within the purview of the treaties themselves; it must not involve a request for separation from the state of the petitioners; it must no be farmed in violent language, and it must not be anonymous. All of these conditions, it will be seen, really have as their object the prevention of the use of the minority pacts as the basis for agitation for territorial changes. But if these conditions are fulfilled, the Secretariat will transmit the complaint to the state to which the petitioners belong; and after a reasonable time has been given for reply, the Council itself will be seised of the matter.

The Council has created for the discussion of such questions an inner committee composed of three members, the President and two others chosen by him, none of whom, however, can have a direct interest in the dispute. The Committee of Three will make thorough examination, and, if it deems such action wise, will report to the Council. The Council may then take such action as it deems wise, and it might, of course, send the dispute to the Court of International Justice for a decision.

In its actual working this machinery has been the subject of a considerable measure of criticism. Only a relatively small number of disputes have actually gone to the Council itself; and there has recently been an agitation for a change in the procedure that has been adopted. Dr. Stresemann, whose broad statesmanship and pacific purposes were so generally admitted, had much harsh criticism of the working of the minority treaties at the session of the League Council a year ago. The Canadian representative on the Council expressed much the same view. Proposals have been made looking to greater publicity in dealing with minority complaints, and to fuller discussion in the Council as a whole. It is felt that legitimate matters of discussion are in a way of being smothered under the existing procedure. [Page 262]It is undoubtedly true that even in the states to which the minority treaties apply, there have been abuses of power by the dominant racial elements. There is plenty of nationalism in post-war Europe, and it must be expected to find expression Such machinery is too new to expect that it should function to the satisfaction of all concerned.

Yet there are a number of observations with regard to this aspect of the League activities that may fairly be made.

In the first place, it seems to be faily clear that those cases which have come before the Council itself have been dealt with quite effectively. In other words, those cases which seemed most serious, and in which the facts were most clearly established. have been settled on a reasonable basis.

In the second place, much is to be hoped from the presence of Germany on the Council of the League. For the first time a state with a positive interest in the development of the principles of the minority treaties has taken its place in the body to which the administration of these treaties is entrusted. It will be more difficult in the future than in the past to prevent free and full discussion of real grievances.

Thirdly, the present government in Great Britain seems to be more vitally interested in the minority question than its predecessor. The influence of another powerful state will be enlisted as never before in the improvement of the system.

Fourthly, the machinery of the League is useful, even when not directly invoked. For no government really relishes being hailed before the bar of international public opinion; and this is precisely what the League procedure involves.

The questions knit up with the further development of this aspect of the League's civities are many and grave. On the one hand, the way to the dress of legitimate grievances must be kept open; on the other, agitation which looks to the re-drawing of the map of Europe must be discouraged, for the use of the treaties for such purposes would almost certainly lead to their breakdown. No one can say whether the tact and wisdom of the directors of League policy will be equal to the exacting task implied. [Page 263]

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The problem of racial minorities in Europe is not insoluble. Switzerland affords an interesting example of the way in which, under liberal institutions, different racial groups can cooperate in a single state. The minorities treaties lay down principles of racial tolerance on which a more peaceful Europe can conceivably be built. They provide for their own enforcement by machinery which can conceivably be developed. In this as in some other aspects of League activity, constructive minds will look rather to the possibilities of wise development, than to the record of the last ten years alone. With the development of an international public opinion to support it, the League ought to have wide possibilities of usefulness in the protection of minorities.

It has similar potentialities in connection with backward peoples. This leads us to the consideration of the mandate system, which I shall discuss in my next article. [Page 264]

XXII-Heinrich Lammasch

JOSEPH REDLICH Law School of Harvard University

In that small number of men to whom the history of pacifism in Europe and particularly during the World War will assure lasting fame, none stands on a higher pedestal than Heinrich Lammasch, the great teacher of International Law and Criminal Law at the University of Vienna, the last Prime Minister of the old Austrian state. It is to me as his faithful disciple, as his friend of many years, and as the Minister of Finance in his government, a real duty of heart to make him by this short sketch better known to American pacifists and their friends.

Heinrich Lammasch was born on May 21, 1853, in Seitenstetten in Lower Austria, the son of a lawyer of that town. Already in infancy he came to Vienna with his parents, where he passed the usual course of lower and middle schools and in the years 1871-1875 studied law in the University of Vienna. Having graduated and become Doctor of Laws on December 19, 1876, he went for a year to the University of Heidelberg to enlarge and to deepen his knowledge of jurisprudence. He was appointed lecturer of Criminal Law in the University of Vienna in 1879. and in 1882 was appointed professor of International Law and Criminal Law at the University of Innsbruck, from there proceeding to the law faculty of the University of Vienna in 1889. During his first decade of his academic career he had already developed a rich literary activity in both fields of the special branches of law which he cultivated. In the great University of [Page 265]

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Vienna he continued these activities in the most remarkable manner. We owe to him from this period a great number of scholarly treatises promoting both International Law and Criminal Law and Procedure. In his seminary most of the later Austrian professors in this part of legal studies were educated, who, following the ways of their master, have cooperated with him to maintain the old authority of Austrian jurisprudence. In 1899. Heinrich Lammasch was called by the Emperor to the Upper House of Parliament, where henceforward he developed a very intensive legislative work on the whole field of civil and criminal law. Politically Lammasch promoted his liberal-conservative views, which make him, who personally was one of the most liberal thinking men one could find, a supporter of those responsible statesmen who wished to bring about peace between the different nationalities of Austria by strengthening provincial and national autonomy. At the same time he fully understood the importance of maintaining the old empire as one of the great units on which European peace rested. Himself being a faithful son of the Catholic church, he never was at a loss in resisting all so-called modern endeavors to belittle the importance of religious lite for our civilization. He was himself a man of deep Christian faith and trust, and his faith remained to him all his life a source of moral strength. From this source came to him his strong belief in the necessity of strictly maintaining moral principles not only in all relations of human individuals but also between nations on this globe. The ideas on problems of international law which he, as one of the leading scholars in this branch of legal science, professed in all his work, came indeed from the depth of his heart and of his character, just as they were at the same time the product of his great scholarship. His private life was the happiest. His wife and his only child, Miss Marga Lammasch, secured to him the full peace of his home and took unceasing care of his welfare, well aware that his delicate health often required special attention. His life, as he himself wrote it, was till 1899 the regular life of a German or Austrian university professor.

A great change occurred after 1899 when he was appointed [Page 266]a member of the Austrian delegation to the First Hague Conference on peace convoked by Czar Nicholas II. Acknowledged as one of the leading European teachers of International Law, he now became prominent by his activities in the practical field of pacifism, which since that First Hague Conference made steady progress all over Europe. As a member of the International Court of Arbitration at The Hague, he functioned as a judge in several of the greatest cases of arbitration; thus, in 1903, he was invited by the Russian Czar to represent him as arbiter in the case of Germany and Great Britain against Venezuela before The Hague Court of Arbitration. A short time thereafter, in 1905, he was appointed by the King of Italy as President of The Hague Court to arbitrate the so-called Maskat Case between Great Britain and France. Once more in 1907 he represented the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the Second Hague Conference, where he again took a prominent place amidst all the eminent lawyers and diplomats representing almost all states of the world. There it was that he took a decisive share in the debates on the great problems of obligatory arbitration. But all his endeavors were frustrated by the resistance of the German Government, to which the Austro-Hungarian Government after some hesitation, also adhered

During all these years Heinrich Lammasch was very active in the Upper House of the Austrian Parliament in the interest of the new Code of Criminal Law. He presided over the commission entrusted with this work by the Government, and the final draft of 1912, is his last great contribution to the great problem of modernizing Criminal Law. In 1910 he again acted twice. President of the International Court of Arbitration at The Hague in which capacity he won greatest fame by the final decision of that old case which had stood for a century between Great Britain and the United States concerning the sea fisheries on the Newfoundland Coast. In 1913, he resigned his chair in the faculty of law in the University of Vienna and retired to the famous old town of Salzburg in order to give himself entirely to his scholarly work and to his great endeavor to promote the ideas of pacifism in Europe, cooperating with all the other prominent [Page 267]representatives of pacifism throughout the world. By this time a great number of literary works both in Criminal Law and in International Law had been published by him, which had made him renowned all over Europe as one of the most prominent and influential jurists of international fame.

It is easily understood how deeply he was struck in the innermost of his whole life, in the depth of his heart and mind, when, in July, 1914, the ultimatum of Austria-Hungary addressed to Serbia resulted in the declarations of war of all the great powers of Europe. Henceforward Heinrich Lammasch had no other aim than to do all that he was capable of doing to restore peace, to maintain the idea of pacifism as the sacred duty of a civilized mankind, and to fill public opinion everywhere with the full appreciation of the unavoidable necessity for the future of creating international institutions which should make the world safer against war than it had ever been.

By his cooperation with scholars, diplomats and statesmen of all nations adhering to pacifist ideas in connection with his activities in the conferences and courts of arbitration at The Hague, Lammasch had earned a very high and widespread international reputation as a scholarly and far-seeing promoter of modern international law and of all ideas tending to replace war by pacifist means of conciliation and arbitration. His fame thenceforward aided him much in his general work in the interest of peace. This work since the outbreak of the war consisted first of all in his indefatigable publicist activity. From the first week of the war he raised his voice most courageously in leading newspapers of his home country, Austria, and abroad. Not less than seventy articles and essays both in daily newspapers, weeklies and reviews were published by Lammasch during the war. The very rigorous censorship laid many obstacles in the way of his trying to popularize his pacifist endeavors, but it could not condemn him to silence. It had only the consequence that Lammasch published most of his ideas and criticisms on the actual events denying the validity of international law more and more frequently in the press of neutral countries. With his old friends [Page 268]and associates in pacifism in Switzerland, Holland and Scandinavia he was in continual correspondence, and when in those countries the first organizations for promoting the peace idea strenuously and for giving better chances to intercourse between the friends of peace throughout the world were formed, Lammasch immediately became the strongest and most influential member of those organizations on the side of the Central Powers. In the year 1916, Lammasch published for the third volume of the "Recueil des rapports sur les différents points du programme-minimum," a very valuable contribution in which he explained the scheme of a general treaty between nations for arbitral mediation of all international conflicts: a most lucid and well-pondered scheme which excels by far the later propositions of General Smutz for a central organization of lasting peace.

In spite of the terrible pressure of the war, bringing to him as to all Austrians the severest hardships of life, and in spite of his immense daily work for peace, Lammasch found the necessary strength and intellectual concentration to write in this time a great scientific work, "The International Law After the War," published in Oslo, Norway. This is a book which no doubt must be considered the most important publication in the whole field of international law which has appeared since the outbreak of the World War. Starting with the negation of the proposition generally held during the war that international law had been destroyed by the war, Lammasch showed that on the contrary just the World War must produce finally a considerable strengthening and enlarging of the ideas embodied in international law, and when Lammasch showed in most convincing argumentation the indissoluble connection of modern international law with the old philosophy of the laws of nature, he judged in the most uncompromising manner all those ideas maintained by the German public opinion of the time which put might before right and which denied the indestructible moral ties between nations that cannot be abolished even by the force of war.

Lammasch lays down that it is impossible to delimit the validity of the ideas of "law" and "right" to the territory of [Page 269]

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the single state, that there exists a law above each state which must be respected by all nations and their governments, and in most impressive words Lammasch condemns modern Machiavellism which to his great pain had found so many supporters in Germany before the war and during it.

Indeed Lammasch appeared in this time as the true protagonist of the indestructible rule of law between nations both in peace and wartime. Like F. W. Foerster in Germany, Lammasch has done much by his intrepid campaign against war during the most terrible war of all times to save the honor of the German name and of German scholarship in international law life. Later generations of the German people will, I hope for certain, acknowledge this fact and learn to pay their homage to these two truly great German scholars and statesmen.

Lammasch's moral courage showed most conspicuously when in the spring of 1917 the Austrian Parliament was opened by the young Emperor Charles, and when Lammasch as a member of the Upper House now raised his voice in this assembly whenever a chance was given to lay down his pacifist ideas and to attack the war and the war psychosis governing almost all minds in the upper and educated classes of his country. Thus there came a day when he stood entirely alone against all three parties of the Austrian Second Chamber and most manfully bore the irate criticisms of the statesmen assembled there proclaiming him as unpatriotic and as a German who forgot his duty to his nationality.

Lammasch had during all the war followed with anxiety the effects which the war had produced on the inner government of the empire and on the different races of Austria which from the beginning had felt no sympathy for the war against Russia and Western liberal nations. He knew that the cohesion of the whole empire unavoidably had to suffer very much from the first day of the war, and with true anxiety he followed the development of the natural reaction of the masses of all nationalities and the pressure of the blockade and starvation produced by the never-ending war. Lammasch always had understood how that centralistic system of government of the polyglot empire maintained [Page 270]by the Germans in Austria and by the Magyars in Hungary had more and more estranged the Slavic, Italian and Roumanian nationalities from the historic realm of the Hapsburgs, and more and more he had become convinced that only a total reform of that system transforming it into a federation on the basis of national autonomy of different races could preserve the existence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He knew that in the old Emperor Francis Joseph's lifetime such a fundamental change could not be expected. But he had reason to set certain hopes on the successor to the throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, who in the year 1910 called Lammasch to advise him in the elaboration of a governmental program which the Archduke prepared with a number of men of his particular confidence for the day of his accession to the throne.

When after the assassination of Francis Ferdinand and during the World War Francis Ferdinand's nephew, Archduke Charles, had become the successor of Emperor Francis Joseph to the throne of the Danubian monarchy, he considered it from the beginning to be his duty to continue the confidence of those men whom his uncle Francis Ferdinand had taken as his intimate advisers. From the beginning of his reign Emperor Charles showed to Professor Lammasch that he highly respected his learning and his political wisdom, that he fully trusted him.

So it came as a matter of course that in the first great political crisis in the spring of 1917, the Emperor offered to him the Premiership of Austria and begged him to form a government, accepting Lammasch's political ideas and aims. Lammasch yet declined this offer and thereby committed, as he himself judged later, a momentous mistake. But he remained in close contact with the young monarch, whom he continually strengthened in his deep dislike of the war policy laid upon Austria by the German Emperor and his generals. Emperor Charles sincerely tried from the beginning of his reign to end the war at as early a date as possible by a peace of mutual understanding between the Central Powers and their enemies. It would go too far to describe here the single phases of the peace policy of Emperor Charles and all the tragic struggles between him on one side and the Minister [Page 271]

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of Foreign Affairs, Count Czernin collaborating with the German Supreme Command under Ludendorff's dictation on the other side. The entering of the United States into the war in 1917 and President Wilson's messages and solemn declarations had made the deepest impression on Lammasch. He had full confidence in the noble intentions of President Wilson and agreed with him in the firm conviction that the World War must be ended by a new and strong organization of the whole world which would guarantee lasting peace. During 1917 and 1918 Lammasch went to Switzerland several times, in order first of all to come in confidential contact with President Wilson. Indeed he was so far successful as to become acquainted with a prominent American, Professor Herron, who at that time lived in Switzerland and undoubtedly stood in direct connection with President Wilson himself. Professor Herron has described his repeated discussions with Professor Lammasch on Swiss soil of the chances and particular conditions under which Austria could attain a separate peace in a report which Mr. Herron contributed to the book in which, after the death of Lammasch, his daughter and a number of his political and personal friends have laid down a history of the life and work of Lammasch and several of the papers left by the late statesman, clearing up certain events in his political activity. Lammasch's most sincere and indefatigable efforts for saving his home country from the mortal dangers which the continuation of the war would entail were deeply rooted in his consciousness that the spirit represented by the military rulers of Germany was utterly wrong and must lead to the ruin of the Central European Powers and of the German nation.

But both the firm resolve of the Allied Powers to end the war by a full victory and the uncompromising attitude of the German Supreme Army Command, which still in the spring of 1918 hoped for full success of its offensive, set all hopes and endeavors for a peace of conciliation between the two camps in which the world was divided at nought. Only the hope that President Wilson's influence would finally become paramount remained strong in men like Lammasch and his friends. [Page 272]When the final crisis in the fall of 1918 came, Lammasch advice and help once more were sought by the Austrian Emperor He now accepted the appointment as Prime Minister. When a week later the German revolution broke out, it became clear to him that he and the cabinet he had formed were by fate destined to be the last Ministry of Old Imperial Austria.

I do not intend to give here this last chapter of the history of Old Austria. Lammasch and his friends had realized from the beginning that their task could be nothing else but the working out of a quiet liquidation of the Old Empire and to safeguard the Emperor personally from the dangers which threatened him from social and racial revolutions. The dissolution of the Hapsburg realm had indeed been initiated earlier when, in October, 1918 Emperor Charles had issued his manifesto by which he invited all the different races of the western half of his Empire to form their national states which henceforward, the Emperor thought by federation would represent and continue the old union maintained by the Dynasty. But when soon after this manifesto the Hungarian Parliament declared the dissolution of the ties which bound Hungary and Austria together since 1867, the Old Empire appeared already doomed. After the outbreak of short and bloodless revolutions in Vienna, in Prague and the other centers of the different nationalities, the resignation of the Emperor unavoidably had to be given and was executed on the advice of his last Ministry headed by Lammasch.

The old scholar and statesman, shocked in his deepest feelings and failing in health, returned to his home town of Salzburg. But the last phase of his passion had yet to come when he was appointed by the Government of the new Republic of Austria as a member of the Peace Commission to be sent to Paris. That the lofty principles and ideals laid down by President Wilson during the war and when he led the United States into the war and later accepted by the Allied Powers as the basis of the armistice with Germany, would guarantee a world peace of conciliation under the firm rule of full self-determination conceded to all nationalities, big and small, all these hopes appeared totally frustrated. [Page 273]

Heinrich Lammasch

when the drafts of the peace treaties with Austria and with Germany were laid before the German and Austrian peace commissions sent to Versailles and St. Germain. This terrible disappointment shook Lammasch in soul and body. He left the work of the Peace Commission, went to Switzerland to restore his health as far as that was possible, and then returned home to take up again his work of enlightening the public opinion on the necessities of a true pacification of the world. His last writings mostly concern the new great scheme of President Wilson, the Covenant for a League of Nations. He who always had indorsed the principles realized in that scheme did not fail also to show several major defects and errors which he found in that final text as drawn up between President Wilson and the Allied Powers in Paris. He published in the same volume a number of addresses, letters and speeches of Woodrow Wilson in German translation, and thus gave to the German public a good picture of the political character of the American President. In a final, posthumously published book entitled, "Murder of Nations or Union?" Lammasch once more admonished particularly the German-reading world to understand that henceforward only this alternative stood before all civilized nations: physical and moral suicide of nations or a peaceful union of all peoples in a true society of nations.

On January 5, 1920, Heinrich Lammasch died, ultimately worn out by long suffering but unto his last hour untiring to support the good and great cause of peace to which he had dedicated his whole life and all his strength. Death took him away, as it were, from his desk, from his incessant work for peace and for a better organization of this world which before all else must be liberated from the scourge of war. The memory of the life and work of this truly great man whom Old Austria had given to the world will be preserved for future times by all who knew him and by those who will become acquainted with his admirable achievements in the field of international law and a deep-rooted pacifism. [Page 274]

THE SCIENTIFIC IMAGINATION

by JAMES H. COUSINS Adyar, Madras

THE claim for the use of the imagination in science recently made by Sir J. C. Bose, the physicist of India, and justified in his own experience, while it would have been scouted by scientists a few years ago as "mysticism," and therefore anathema, is now listened to, if not with universal acceptance, at least with general tolerance. The change is not merely a tribute to a personal triumph on the part of the scientist who proved that minerals, plants and animals responded similarly to external stimuli; it marks a broadening of the general attitude of men of science towards the whole field and method of scientific research. Science no longer, to take an example, limits the study of the psyche to mental process. It has come face to face with the entity behind the process. Rationalism, which based itself on the evidence of the senses, can no longer be regarded as rational when it ties itself to ratiocination and ignores the spontaneous vital phenomena which science is studying more and more closely under the designation of psychical research.

This broadening is not confined to the subjects strictly termed scientific. It is seen in the modern inclusion of the intuition in the domain of philosophical study. It is possible indeed that this latter change may ultimately be counted of first importance among the influences that have altered the whole face of the scientific world within a couple of generations. It has provided science with an alluring extension of its field of research beyond the frontiers of the mind; and it has put in its hands an instrument of incalculable possibilities. Heretofore science has regarded the imagination, which is the same thing, with some qualifica- [Page 275]

THE SCIENTIFIC IMAGINATION

tions, as the intuition, as anything but scientific; on the other hand, the intuition in the past has lacked the service of science in testing its impressions and formulating their expression. It is now realized that both have suffered deprivation from the separation. But the future holds the promise of extraordinary advances through the operation, on the one hand, of intuitive science, such as that which Sir J. C. Bose has spoken of, and, on the other, of the scientific imagination.

There is, however, an interesting distinction to be made between the scientific and the intuitional functions of humanity. Science as we know it is a matter of comparatively recent growth. But the intuition has shown itself since time immemorial; and the history of the future development along the lines indicated will have as a parallel the study of the past history of the intuition. From such a study there will emerge, we believe, many facts of first rate importance in the understanding of the evolution of the human race. A book by the eminent psychologist, Professor Leonard T. Troland, "The Mystery of Mind" (Chapman and Hall), gives a remarkable example of what we mean.

In his study of the nature of consciousness, which we may take to be the last word of modern psychology, Professor Troland reaches the conclusion that in all the aspects of physical reality there is intermixed something of the nature of consciousness; that this consciousness has an integral tendency to pleasure; and that it is this tendency which drives the universe from repose to activity. Now these three conclusions of modern psychological thought are amongst the axioms of the ancient philosophy of India, and may be found by any one who cares to spend an hour in looking through the index of any well edited translation of the "Upanishads." In these hoary records of what, in the light of modern thought, we may regard as the scientific imagination, it is set out (1) That all activity presupposes consciousness (prajna), (2) That the condition of the cosmic activity is bliss (ananda), and (3) That the nature of the Purusha (the creative power of the universe) is the desire that leads from potentiality to fulfillment. [Page 276]

PACIFISM IN THE MODERN WORLD

By JOHN HERMAN RANDALL, JR. Department of Philosophy, Columbia University

IT IS now over eleven years since any American has been forced to ask himself, without hope of escape or evasion, the insistently personal question, "Shall I or shall I not refuse to fight in the armed forces of the United States?" Everybody today deprecates war, even rear-admirals and major-generals, senators and statesmen outlaw it, public opinion thrills at its horrors, and the grumbling tax-payer admits it is a bad business. The air is full of peace and rumors of peace. To hate war is no longer a crime, there being for the moment no war anyone loves. The peacemaker is once more respectable, and sits in high places; even the warmaker does homage to the name of peace.

We are all so busily engaged in practical schemes for abolishing war that we are apt to forget those who hated war when there was war and loved peace when there was no peace, who were not respectable and did not sit in high places. Such pacifists are brushed aside impatiently in the "hard-headed" and "realistic" peace movements of today. "We are trying to take the legal, psychological, and economic measures necessary to prevent the recurrence of war. Why remind us of the speeches we made and the things we did in the last war? Above all, why ask the impertinent question, what are we going to do in the next war? Come and help us to make sure there will be none." "With the greatest eagerness," reply the pacifists. "Only—what are you going to do in the next war?"

It is a question most workers for peace, most advocates of world unity, had rather not answer. It is a question no man who lived through the years from 1914 to 1918 wants to have to answer. [Page 277]

PACIFISM IN THE MODERN WORLD

But the pacifists have an answer, and, what is more, they know why they have their answer. That answer, and the reasoned and passionate faith on which it is founded, deserves the earnest attention of all fair-weather peacemakers. Let us by all means cooperate valiantly with every movement that promises to contribute to the establishment of world peace, ays the pacifist. Without such detailed labor, peace will surely remain an empty dam. But can the peace movement ever achieve the final abolition of war without pacifism as a basic conviction?

Mr. Devere Allen, editor of The World Tomorrow, asks that question in the symposium he has brought together in the volume, Pacifism in the Modern World.' The twenty writers do not concern themselves with the analysis of the present situation; they take that for granted. They do not contribute any novel schemes or panaceas for the abolition of war: their attitude on such machinery is realistic and experimental. But it is doubtful if any single volume has ever raised so many fundamental questions about the practical attitude men shall take toward the fact of war and violence. The conviction of the pacifist, "This thing shall not be!" is revealed, not as an isolated judgment, but as implying a whole way of life and an integrated texture of human living. The principle so clearly involved in the attitude toward war as a method of social change is disentangled and explored in all its ramifications, wherever the conflict of social interests is likely to provoke violence, in racial and economic as well as international relations. The twenty writers are all united in their determined resistance to the method of war; in their further plumbings of the principle of non-violence they diverge somewhat, as is but natural. "Yet despite the effect of variety," writes Mr. Allen, "through the thought of all flows an essential unity of purpose, the distinctive view of life which makes pacifism what it is."

Mr. Allen believes, with admirals and generals, in preparedness. He has taken to heart the undoubted wisdom of the old adage, "In time of peace prepare for war." He was ready for the

Devere Allen, editor, Pacifism in the Modern World. Doubleday Doran. xviii, 178 pp $1.00. [Page 278]last war, and he is ready for the next. "Once a war is imminent there are no real facts accessible; every cable becomes a carrier of falsehood, every telegraph wire a channel of pollution, every wind of gossip a pestilence of perversion. The only time when a rational being can determine scientifically his attitude to war is now." His preparedness is an intellectual and spiritual preparedness. It is realistic, being based on knowledge and facts. He knows what war is, and what it does. "The pacifist is not so visionary as to trust war for the accomplishment of any good end; it is he rather than the one who capitulates to apparent military necessities, who is after all the realist." His preparedness is also spiritual, in the sense of having worked out a spiritual ideal for man and in its light ordered human living. "Pacifists realize that pacifism touches all of life with a new beauty and lets loose in society a leavening ideal profoundly in contrast with our contemporary economic and social structure. Pacifism in our day directly challenges imperialism, industrial autocracy, punishment as a basis for penology, race prejudice, indeed every phase of the existing social order which thwarts fellowship and love."

Mr. Allen has carefully planned the twenty-one essays to examine each of these implications of the principle of pacifism in detail. In consequence, there is about the volume little of the disjointed character so common in symposiums of this kind; the writer knows of no cooperative book so skillfully edited or so successful in conveying a unified impression. To Mr. Allen also must go the laurels for the best individual essay: in War Resistance as War Prevention he faces the fundamental issue of pacifism, its efficacy in destroying the thing it abhors, fairly and squarely. Patiently he disposes of the stock objections, and persuasively he argues for complete and thoroughgoing resistance to the method of socialized murder. Nowhere has a much needed task been so well performed; Mr. Allen is irrefutable.

For however much the absolute refusal to touch the method of warfare may imply a general principle of non-violent social readjustment, the core of pacifism is just this absolute condemnation of war. Pacifists may differ on the possible uses and [Page 279]justifications of force in other settings, as do the contributors to this volume; war has no use and no justification. There are certain methods whose consequences are so fraught with disaster, materially and ethically, that no possible incidental good accomplished can justify their employment. No end whatever which demands such means for its realization can justify itself to an intelligent and ethically sensitive man. It stands self-condemned.

It is the glory of the pacifist to insist on the basic conviction that war is such an impossible end. As Bishop Paul Jones points out, "The pacifist believes that the methods we use will determine the results we get. . . . He believes that the means and end are so intimately related that it is impossible to get a coordinated and cooperative world by destructive methods that violate personality and increase antagonism and distrust. He therefore cannot go with those who so emphasize the goal that they are ready to use any method in trying to reach it. He takes his stand on a conception of personality and the reactions of human nature which are ignored by those who would fight war with the war method or would try to rid the world of an exploiting system by using its own methods against it."

This absolute condemnation of the method of warfare, this insistence that war is wrong, always, everywhere, and under every circumstance, is a type of moral conviction in many ways uncongenial to the modern temper. The pacifist is a dogmatist, an absolutist; and men pride themselves today on the experimental temper of their moral standards, on what they call "moral relativism," on their realization that circumstances alter cases. The pacifist is an individualist, he insists that he at least will keep his skirts clean, his hands free from pollution; and men are today increasingly social in their moral temper and ideals, they insist that no man can so easily avoid the responsibility of social wrongdoing, and condemn the attempt as self-righteousness. The pacifist has usually been an authoritarian, he has appealed to religion, to the words of Jesus; and such authoritarianism is today doomed by the experimental spirit of science. How then can the pacifist hope to justify himself to those who, however earnestly [Page 280]they may desire the abolition of war, refuse to bind themselves absolutely never to participate in it? How can he escape condemnation as a well-meaning but deluded representative of an outworn morality?

Mr. Allen, who probably knows more about the history of pacifism and its present complexion than any other American, shows how without losing its living faith the pacifism of today has adapted itself to current moral attitudes. It has ceased to be authoritarian without ceasing to be religious. "Though pacifists are profoundly religious, using the word to include the mystic and the rationalistic humanitarian alike, they are more and more inclined to interpret their faith in the divine possibilities of the human race under the light of social science—subjecting their ideas to continual and rigorous tests in their own experience, the relations of groups, and in concrete international situations." It is significant that not one of the writers in this volume rests his case on the teachings of Jesus.

Moreover, the modern pacifist is anything but an individualist. "The pacifism of today is strongly positive. The pacifist's concern is not merely the salvation of his soul by refusal to sin through the employment of violence; he is out to abolish war and conceives of his pacifism as a means directly to that end.... Regardless of how often pacifists may appear to the public eye as obstructionists, recalcitrants, or slackers, they are undertaking positive accomplishments in social progress." The refusal to fight is a potent means of preventing war. Mr. Allen's summary of the practical effectiveness of pacifism is one of the best things in the book. "It strikes directly at man-power, the indispensable element of warfare in all ages. . . . It cuts to the root of a fatal popular state of mind, the reliance on war as a last resort.... It can aid in the conquest of international fears. . . . It can push governments toward peace. . . . It supplies a moral and dramatic equivalent for war." Even if the group of war-resisters be pitifully small, it can exert an influence out of all proportion to its numbers. "A group of resisters exercising obstructive power is the lingering popular conscience. By the prophecy of those willing [Page 281]to pay a price for their convictions, states make their most profound social gains. Almost all advances the human race has thus tar made have been due to the defiant rebellion of minorities."

On the third score the pacifist resolutely stands his ground. He is an absolutist, a dogmatist. The method of warfare is eternally wrong. No appeal to the experimental temper, the scientific attitude of mind, can shake him. He knows that no war can ever be justified; he does not need to wait for experience to prove it. Why talk of further experiment and trial? That experiment has been made, that trial conducted.

Such an attitude may not be popular today, in the quicksands of our dissolving moral convictions. It is the fashion to decry all such moral imperatives and taboos. But that fashion cannot fall back on science or its experimental method for justification. No one would go farther than the writer in advocating a thorough-going employment of scientific method in the field of human conduct, in extolling the experimental temper of mind, the willingness to live by hypothesis. But not even the life of scientific inquiry can be conducted without imperatives, without basic convictions, without faith. That inquiry rests on unquestioned principles, on inviolable taboos. Without them, experiment could prove nothing; they are its premises, not its results. In opposing the passing moral relativism of today, pacifists can truly claim to possess the scientific temper of mind. Their absolute opposition to warfare is right. To wage war for the highest ideals of Liberty and Justice, in all sincerity, is nevertheless damnable. To employ armed force to further human brotherhood itself does not cease to be organized murder.

But pacifism does not stop with the emphatic condemnation of warfare as a method. Such condemnation implies a general principle and an attitude toward all the experiences of life. As Professor Reinhold Niebuhr expresses it, "Pacifists may be defined as social idealists who are profoundly critical and skeptical of the use of physical force in the solution of social problems." More positively, Bishop Jones writes: "Pacifism I would call an attitude to life arising from a belief in human capacity for social [Page 282]action, which stresses the importance of the reaction of person upon person and group upon group, and which consequently use only methods calculated to evoke cooperative action in seeking to achieve a progressive integration of life in every field of huma relations." Still more emphatically, Professor Rufus M. Jones insists: "Pacifism means peace-making. The pacifist is literally. peace-maker. He is not a passive or negative person who proposes to lie back and do nothing in the face of injustice, unrighteousness, and rampant evil. He stands for the 'fiery positive.' Pacifism is not a theory; it is a way of life. It is something you are and de

In treating such a positive way of life, the various contributors range all the way from the utter repudiation of all force to its repudiation only in the case of war; from Professor Jones clear enunciation of the gospel of peacemaking, of overcoming evil with good, to Mr. A. J. Muste's reluctant apology for force in class warfare; from Professor Bruce Curry's ringing appeal to a loyalty higher than the state, to the moral law, and Professor George A. Coe's call for a super-political conscience, to Professor Goodwin Watson's irrationalism and fatalism. It is obvious tha: the extent to which force is necessary in other than armed conflict is still doubtful, and awaits further experience. Professor Niebuhr's careful examination of The Use of Force is by far the most critical exploration of this vexed question. Somewhere the line must be drawn between the use of force as a necessary and as an unnecessary evil. Only experimentation with the principle of nor violence can determine its limits.

One important problem is raised by those minorities struggling against the injustice and organized violence of the stat quo. "It is a very simple matter," says Professor Howard Thurman, speaking for the Negroes, "for people who form the dominant group in a society to develop what they call a philosophy of pacifism that makes few, if any, demands upon their ethical obligations to minority groups with which they may be having contacts. Such a philosophy becomes a mere quietus to be put into the hands of the minority to keep them peaceful and controllable." Violence has ever seemed the only recourse of the [Page 283]weak. Pacifism as a general principle, the insistence that peaceful methods only must be employed, can easily become mere hypocrisy in a society that demands social change, change that can be effected only by the emphatic rebellion of the minorities suffering from oppression and injustice. Mr. A. J. Muste puts the problem in its most insistent form. It is not the oppressed, the radicals, who are alone practising violence; it is our whole social order that was built up largely by violence, is now being extended by violence, and is maintained only by violence. The foremost task of the pacifist in connection with class war is to denounce the violence on which the present system is based. So long as we are not dealing honestly and adequately with this 90% of our problem, there is something ludicrous and perhaps hypocritical about our concern over the 10% of violence employed by the rebels against oppression. We are stayed from preaching non-violence to the underdog unless and until we have dealt adequately with the dog who is chewing him up.... We are not in a moral position to advocate nonviolent methods to labor while we continue to be beneficiaries of the existent order. . . . Nor can anyone really with good conscience advocate abstention from violence to the masses of labor in revolt, unless he is himself identified in spirit with labor and helping it with all his might to achieve its rights and to realize its ideals. In a world built on violence one must be a revolutionary before one can be a pacifist: in such a world a non-revolutionary pacifist is a contradiction in terms, a monstrosity." It is Mr. Allen again who says the final word. Pacifism cannot be the maintenance of peace at any price, sheer acquiescence in the present situation. "Pacifism is essentially a method of social change, of social development. Its dynamic power is goodwill."

In opposing armed conflict, the pacifist is driven to generalize his principles, to proceed from his condemnation of one method to explore the possibility of eradicating similar methods everywhere. And to eradicate one method necessitates the substitution of another. The present volume pushes the inquiry resolutely to this possibility and substitution, to a whole philosophy of life. [Page 284]

WORLD UNITY CONFERENCES

Under the Auspices of World Unity Foundation

The World Unity Conferences are a medium by which responsible leaders of opinion can cove their message to the public without restriction of race, class, nationality or creed. Upholding the ideals of brotherhood found in all religious and ethical teachings, the Conferences strive to quicke the spiritual resources of the community by bringing upon one platform gifted speakers representing the universal outlook and capable of interpreting the meanings of the new age. World Unity Conferences are held at frequent intervals in cities of the United States and Canada, and this education activity will be extended as soon as possible to Europe. A distinctive feature of the Conferenc consists in the local World Unity Councils, composed of leading liberals, established in the var cities to further the world unity ideal.

Program of Meetings-October, 1929-May, 1930

Cleveland, Ohio—October 20 to 24 Chicago, Ill.—November 10 to 24 Buffalo, N. Y.—December 1 to 5 Detroit, Mich.—January 19 to 23 Washington, D. C.—February 16 to Baltimore, Md.—March 9 to 13 Pittsburgh, Pa.—April 6 to 10 Philadelphia, Pa.—May 4 to 8 Boston, Mass.—May 18 to 22

WORLD UNITY COUNCILS

Buffalo

Rev. R. Carl Stoll, Chairman Dr. Allen Knight Chalmers Mrs. Joseph Devine Mrs. Harold M. Esty Mr. William Evans Rabbi Joseph L. Fink Mrs. Chauncy J. Hamlin Rev. Palfrey Perkins Dr. Augustus H. Sherrer Rev. Donald Tullis Miss Olive Williams

Chicago

Prof. Fred Merrifield, Chairman Dr. George W. Allison Prof. Edward Scribner Ames Dr. William H. Boddy Dr. Preston Bradley Mrs. Charles S. Clark Mrs. Henry Clay Doffeen Mrs. Ed. E. Dixon S. John Duncan-Clark Mr. F. C. Eiselen Dr. G. George Fox Dr. Charles W. S. Gilkey Professor A. Eustace Haydon Mrs. Edward S. Lowenthall Miss Mary McDowell Rabbi Louis L. Mann Dr. Rowena Morse Mann Dr. Curtis W. Reese Mrs. P. A. Spaulding Lorado Taft Dr. Ernest F. Tittle

Cleveland

Dr. Charles F. Thwing, Hon. Chairman Mr. Thomas J. Holmes, Chairman Rabbi S. Goldman Rev. Joel B. Hayden Prof. W. G. Leutner Dr. Dilworth Lupton Parker Wright Meade Miss Ethel Parmenter Mr. Joseph Remenyi Rabbi Hillel Silver Mrs. Judson Stewart Judge George S. Addams Dr. Henry Turner Bailey Dr. Dan Bradley Mrs. Frances F. Bushea Mr. Dale S. Cole Miss Linda A. Eastman Dr. A. Caswell Ellis Mrs. Royce D. Fry [Page 285]

WORLD UNITY CONFERENCES

De Frank D. Adams, Chairman Mrs Philamine Altman Mrs. Wm. Alrord Mrs Carl B. Chamberlin De Frank Cody Cran W. L. Coffee Mr John Dancy Mrs. Robert L. Davis Rabbi Abraham J. Feldman, Chairman Miss Mary Bulkley Kev Willis H. Buuler Mr. C. C. Heminway Dr Lawrence L. Doggett, Chairman Rev Fred Winslow Adams Mr William B. Belli Mrs. W. J. Campbell Miss Mary Vida Clark De George Lawrence Parker, Chairman Judge Jason B. Barber Robert Blyth Miss Matilda Campbell Miss Olive Colton" Mr Maurice Hutton, Chairman Mrs John S. Bennett Murray G. Brooks Mr. Maurice Bucovetsky Mr. J. W. Bundy Rev W. A. Cameron Dr. Trevor H. Davies Professor de Lury Miss Hettie P. Anderson Dr. George F. Bowerman Senator Capper Mr Wm. Knowles Cooper Dr. W. H. P. Faunce, Hon. Chairman Mrs. John H. Wells, Chairman Dr John L. Alger Mrs. James E. Cheeseman Rev. David Rhys Williams, Chairman Mrs. Helen Probst Abbott Rabbi Philip Bernstein Mr. Thomas A. Bolling Miss Elizabeth Brooks

Detroit

Mrs. H. W. Dunklee Dr. Chester B. Emerson Rabbi Leo M. Franklin Mrs. Eric Leyton Gates Mrs. G. T. Hendrie Mr. Ralph C. McAfee Mrs. Charles M. Novac Rt. Rev. Herman Page Dr. Morton Pearson Dr. Augustus P. Reccord Mr. Jarvis Schermerhorn Mr. Adam Strohm Mr. Lee M. Terrill Mr. W. W. Wing

Hartford

Mr. George C. Hubert Dr. John C. Jackson Rev. Richard H. McLaughlin Dr. A. B. Meredith Miss Ella E. Muir Mrs. R. P. Nason Dr. Rockwell Harmon Potter Mrs. Milton Simon Professor Edward L. Troxell Mr. Fred D. Wish

Springfield

Miss Maude B. Corbett Rev. W. N. de Berry Rev. Owen Whitman Eames Mr. Carlos B. Ellis Dr. James Gordon Gilkey Rev. Frank B. Fagerburg Mrs. Archer F. Leonard Mrs. Asel A. Packard Rabbi Samuel Price Mrs. Joseph Pynchon Mrs. Robert E. Stebbins Mrs. Hilley C. Wellman

Toledo

Mr. John D. Dun Mrs. F. L. Geddes Dr. John L. Keeday Rabbi Kornfield Dr. R. Lincoln Long Mrs. George Lawrence Parker Mr. Grove Patterson Mr. Harold C. Place Miss Florence Sprague Mrs. Robert J. West

Toronto

Mrs. Dunnington-Grubb Dr. E. A. Bardy Mr. J. W. Hopkins Dr. James L. Hughes Rabbi Ferdinand M. Isserman Dr. D. D. MacDonald Mrs. J. Pat McGregor Mr. Fred C. Meyer Miss J. M. Norton Dr. George C. Pidgeon Rev. C. V. Pulcher Mrs. H. W. Price Dr. J. R. P. Sclater Mrs. Robert B. Thompson Mrs. F. C. Ward

Washington

Dr. Henry Grattan Doyle Dr. Mordecai Johnson Rev. Moses R. Lovell Mr. Allan B. McDaniel Judge Mary O'Toole Dr. Jason Noble Pierce Rabbi Abram Simon Mrs. Wm. Adams Slade

Providence

Rev. Arthur W. Cleaves Mrs. George H. Crooker Professor L. M. Goodrich Rabbi Samuel M. Gup Rev. Richard McLaughlin Miss M. S. Morriss Mrs. Frank E. Peckham Rt. Rev. James de Wolf Perry Rev. O. S. P. Thompson

Rochester

Mrs. Mary Thorn Lewis Gannett Mr. Frank E. Gugelman Dr. Raymon Kistler Mr. Clement G. Lanni Dr. Dexter Perkins Dr. Justin Wroe Nixon Miss Helen W. Pomeroy Dr. Orlo J. Price Mr. Harold W. Sanford LeRoy E. Snyder Mr. William F. Yust [Page 286]

ROUND TABLE

With Nicholas Roerich's Shambhala, the magazine makes further progress toward its goal of balance between East and West. While the average Occidental might feel little significance in Mr. Roerich's vivid account of the spiritual quickening he witnessed in the Orient, on account of its connection with prophecy, this faith in the "law of cycles" may later on prove to be a psychological contribution to human evolution not less important than our own contributions of industrial technic. The revolutionized status of woman which has taken place in our own times should at least make the Western world willing to appreciate the possibility that a social element depressed in one age may in another age rise to a position of commanding influence. The great difficulty standing in the way of true cooperation between East and West today is our fatal human habit of assuming the exclusive, "either-or" attitude when confronted by any pair of opposites. The fact is, both Oriental and Occidental outlooks are necessary to mankind or they would not have developed. Reconciliation means adding the other outlook to the one we already have; but reconciliation in this deeper sense is slow and hard because each of the outlooks could only develop by suppressing in people those particular capacities required to create the other view.

The editors have received a truly touching appeal from a group of two hundred and twelve school girls in an American School in Bulgaria. "For five long centuries Bulgaria was under the Turkish yoke, without a gleam piercing the darkness, without hope for better days and freedom. Please use your power to aid us. You can do much toward the remitting of the Bulgarian reparations.... Our country is a poor one and the collecting of the sum for reparations is followed by untold pain and suffering. The watchword of the new Bulgarian generation is 'International Friendship.' Please do not break our faith in the high ideals you pursue and in Justice and Humanity."

Let these children, and the children of every land rent by the war, be spared the obvious comment that statesmen of their own race and blood assumed responsibility for such conditions when they entered the war. We can no longer isolate people into separate destinies. The only real reparation will be that world order in which economic power can be generated sufficient to settle international indebtedness as a by-product of the day's work, without victimizing innocent youth.

The Questionnaire referred to last month has been bringing very interesting returns. A complete analysis of the informal vote will be published as soon as possible. [Page 287]Now A Monthly Magazine PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION The Journal of Modern Trends in Education for Progressive Educators and Thoughtful Parents

The one educational magazine you will read and reread. It is attractive, comprehensive, stimulating, and authoritative.

Forthcoming issues will contain articles by George Boas, of the Johns Hopkins University; Stephen P. Duggan, of the Institute of International Education; Henry Seidel Canby, editor of "The Saturday Review of Literature"; Robert Morss Lovett, Knight Dunlap, and other leaders in education and literature.

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With each 1930 subscription, if entered in January, we will include the December, 1929 issue. Use the attached coupon, and address Department B.

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Enclosed find my check for $3.00 for which enroll me as a Subscribing-Member in the Progressive Education Association for 1930.

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

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