World Unity/Volume 12/Issue 4/Text

[Page 192]

WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

Volume XII, July, 1933

The Devious Path . ... 2.2. 6 we Editorial World Citizenshi® «ac se ee ow 4 Carl A. Ross War Debts--World Liability or Worid ASS@T! g¢.«1 ct dwar wees Royal W. France A Real Defense of Religion ..... Wallace W. Willard

International Co-Citizenship: The Sole Basis of Permanent

International Peace ....... Raphael Buck The New Lilliputian Land ...... L. A. Hawkins World Advance: A Monthly

International Review. ...... Oscar Newfang The World of Reality ......6. Ruhi Afnan Gone Hotes «ts ewer eee se Re * Joseph S. Roucek

Notes on the Present Issue Advertisements

193-194 195-204

205-211 212-219

220-229 230-236

237-244 245-250 251-254 255 256 �[Page 193]THE DEVIOUS PATH

EDi . \)\\fAL

of the League of Nations to the gloomy fear that the once-

allied nations will now find it impossible to agree on cer-

tain outstanding problems, indicates a prevailing ignorance of what “internationalism” really means.

Internationalism, literally, means the relations among nations, but it has come to convey the larger meaning ‘of world order.

Considering the literal meaning, the significance of the “inter” depends wholly on the implication attached to the word “nation.” As long as a nation is conceived to be a wholly self-centered and sclf-seeking political entity, the relations between nations can rise no higher than those temporary agreements formally detined in treaties. But such a political entity contains within itself condi- tions of social and economic stress which make for continuous change between the state and the people.

It is well to glance back at the “internationalism” which as- sctted itself after the Napoleonic wars. Nations at that time were monarchies and social oligarchies established during medieval times. Any agreement between nations was made by the powerful tew, with regard primarily to their continuance in authority and privilege, and only secondarily with regard to the tundamental well being of the whole population. Historically, that “internation. lism” was destroyed by the insistent rise of democracy.

In the same manner, those nations that achicved the “inter- nationalism” of the League one hundred years later were still but incompletely in social and political repose. From the date the Lcague Covenant was signed, the assurance of even temporary in- ternational peace released within each nation violent forces insis- tent upon fundamental social reorganization. The real point is

ty 4

T: descent from the high hopes released by the founding �[Page 194]194 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

that there can be no “internationalism” of and for peoples, as dis. tinct from an “internationalism” of treaty among political leaders. until the nations have each achieved real and enduring order.

The path to world unity is, and must be, a devious path—: path that now swerves in the direction of broader treaties and covenants, and again swerves in the opposite direction of organic internal improvement. The outbreak of revolutionary movements during the past ten years reveals all too clearly how much social readjustment has been required within each nation before true and enduring “‘nations”—uniting people and state—can exist.

Those who mean by “internationalism” a world order, 2 world knit together for cooperation in all important human inter- csts, must deepen their conception of the historic forces moving states and humanity at this time. International peace can never be the gift to humanity made by political powers each of which has tailed to establish the true peace of social justice at home.

The present London Conference is supremely significant in that its final outcome will strike a trial balance between these two as vet unreconciled forces—the needs of states andthe needsof human: ity. If the Conference succeeds in writing into firm law, law translat- able into daily practice, some fundamental agreements making for increased freedom of the flow of goods from nation to nation, and some final agreements disposing of the war debts, that success will serve notice upon us all that the forces of internal revolution have at last begun to subside. If, however, the Conference ter- minates in mere words and sterile formulas, due notice will be served that the evolution of nationalism is still incomplete, and that internationalism in the real sense must await further internal ad- justments including the possibility of new revolutionary move- ments, social, economic and political.

In brief, the goal of world order lies through the jungle of domestic politics where the issue still to be determined is what constitutes the real nature of human society.

H. H. �[Page 195].,ORLD CITIZENSHIP by Cart A. Ross

Lawyer

1. World Citizenship in Practice

wish briefly to review the past series and forecast the new series

before it is completed. We began with a constitutional con-

cept made vivid and concrete to us in a draft of certain im- portant articles of a constitution for a World Federation modeled after the constitution of the United States. Under later topics of the series many problems faced by such a constitution, such as ex- territoriality, national governments, sovereignty, allegiance, and the war debts were discussed in the light of our early American history centering around the thirteen colonies after the Revolu- tionary War and the adoption of our United States constitution. The Federalist, John Fiske, James Bryce and many current writers were freely quoted in support of our thesis.

This parallel between the conditions in America in the 1780's and world conditions in the 1920's has stood the test of publicity. No one has denied it or challenged its basic implications. On the other hand, a high official of American League organizations has written us: “I have absolutely no difference with you on your main thesis. Your arguments backed by history as to the superiority of the United States Constitution over the Articles of Confederation «re entirely sound. I think a United States of the World would be very much better than the League. I wish it were possible, but it is not!” si

We realize that this opinion of the impracticability of World Citizenship is general. Many writers have mentioned world federa-

195

I: beginning a new series of articles on World Citizenship we �[Page 196]r

196 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

tion as an ideal, but few have championed it as a practical solution. However, as a problem of constitutional law we believe our pub. lished articles have demonstrated that there is nothing impossibl or impracticable of speedy realization so far as constitutional pro- cesses ‘go, in the establishment of a world government based on World Citizenship that would embrace, not all, but a reasonable majority of the nations of the world. In this new series, while con- tinuing a study of constitutional phases of World Citizenship, we also assay the task of demonstrating the soundness and feasibility of World Citizenship in the realm of economics, finance and racial relations, problems incident to our industrial age. Many people are now critical of republicanism and they express it in various ways, we would join them by saying that our present set-up of republicanism has borne its fruit and withered, our modern indus- trialism being the ripened grain, and a new planting is demanded. We believe the same seed of republicanism should be sowed, not sced of any socialistic variety.

If, as we shall contend, a new republicanism in the form of World Citizenship will materially help to end our depression, it it will help Asia and the race problem while at the same time pre- serve Asian culture and civilization, if it will effect a reduction of armaments “with security,” as legitimately demanded by France, it it will harmonize or reconcile capitalism, sovietism and fascism sufficiently to aftord reasonable insurance against mortal conflict, World Citizenship should not be impossible of attainment, thc people of the world should be led to adopt it rather than left to drift into another world war.

For the purpose of discussing World Citizenship in practice we shall, perforce, assume its adoption by at least a working ma- jority of the leading nations of the world through the assent of a like majority of their respective citizens in suitable constitutional conventions revising the basic national governments to conform to the new constitutional model. On no other basis can we discuss cftectively the economic, fiscal and racial problems of the world as they would be affected by such basic constitutional reforms. But �[Page 197]WORLD CITIZENSHIP 197

our first endeavor should be to get a clear perspective of the new map that would result from establishing World Citizenship.

One of the first problems to be met in organizing our World Empire under world citizenship principles is, what nations would naturally become charter members and what map would result’ We believe the rational supposition to be that the majority of na- tions in such an event would consist of the leading nations in the Americas and in Europe. The action of Asia and Africa would be more problematic, nor do we care to discuss whether the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Turkey would be classed as Euro- pean or Asian. However, we would assume that some Asiatic na- tions qualified as charter members. Nine of the thirteen States had to accept our constitution before it became binding and some similar provision should be incorporated in any constitution recom- mended by any world constitutional convention. The status of na- tions that refused to join as charter members should be fixed in the world constitution subject to the limitation that no nation should be denied the right to join later. We do not care to be dogmatic about the status of nations remaining aloof. In 1789 Vermont and Canada held aloof and numerous of the thirteen States had claims to western territory. All these conditions would reappear. Do not the nations of today assert like claims to territory, though the claims of some were denied at Versailles in favor of others? Have all the mandated peoples been content and has not the statas guo been disturbed in Africa and the Near East as well as in the Far East ever since Versailles? Some powers have emerged from this strife strong and united enough, perhaps, to qualify as charter members, surely the clash of their adherence would not be more severe than when Kansas was admitted, nor would lawlessness be more rife than in some other of our western States at the period of their ad- mission to statehood. Other dependencies among our mandated peoples should be turned over to the Union to exercise the mandate as our States turned over their western territorics to the federal government. This might leave a few nations actually hostile to the World Federation and a world allegiance. The citizens of �[Page 198]198 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

such hostile nations would surely become “foreigners,” their land “foreign territory.” How large this foreign territory would be and its shore line on the high seas, no one can well forecast. In our discussions we will often refer to these three main classes of na- tions, charter members, mandates and foreign countries.

Assuming the adoption of World Citizenship, then, all nations in the world will fall in one or the other of these three classes. Those favoring world federation will be found as charter mem- bers or mandates and automatically all other nations will be for- cign and considerations of economic and fiscal expediency will largely determine whether any given nation joins or remains aloof. New York, North Carolina and Rhode Island were the last States to adopt our constitution, joining after the constitution became ef- fective by adherence of nine States. These three States were not convinced of the constitutional superiority of the Union, but feared its economic, financial and military strength. We believe these same economic, financial and military considerations would today exert even a stronger pull for union than they did in 1789, and, without elaboration, we will enumerate some of these advantages.

Charter members would no longer need to support their re- spective national army or navy since the Union would furnish al! the navy needed, but a “foreign” nation would find itself opposed to an army and navy representing the World Empire and at a de- cided disadvantage in any race in armaments.

We expect later to devote some space to consideration of the High Scas under a World Federation, but now we would merely point out that likely a large proportion of all important world ports would be within Union territory and thereby shipping morc casy of control than under present conditions. Even the United States could not well remain aloof were practically all European ports and many in Asia and South America under Union control

Taking our queue from 1789, we would expect the Union to Adopt a single currency, with redemption in gold in any nation mem- ver. The effects of having one currency and one gold reserve for �[Page 199]WORLD CITIZENSHIP 199

the Union would be far reaching and will be more fully considered ater in the series.

An Empire Banking system, uniform in all nations of the \‘nion, would doubtless be enacted and fortunate the merchant anywhere in Union territory thus able to conduct his business throughout the Empire under one banking system and under onc currency.

The Union would need and would possess under World Citi- venship principles, the right to tax for carrying on the federated government functioning in matters now exterritorial, and would doubtless refund all so-called War Debts and Reparations thus re- living the various national budgets of a heavy interest burden. With a single currency, a single banking system and a single war debt all backed by the entire population within the federated terri- tory, a sound basis would be laid for a return to normal and stable business conditions for all participating nations. In the United states it would mean a revival of mass production on a sound basis. some of these reforms might fail of realization, but history teaches that they have more than a reasonable chance of success.

In this program of reforms what is there inconsistent with the national honor of any country, capitalistic or proletarian, what is there limiting the sovereignty of the people in any participating nation, what is there inimical to the domestic program of any na- tion, capitalistic or proletarian, laisser faire, socialist, fascist or soviet? Would not these benefits accrue to all alike, whether Amer- ican, European or Asian? Such reforms would not of themselves create any new problems between participating nations, they would merely simplify existing business conditions and permit business to develop under more favorable trading conditions. The improvement in credit conditions resulting from a stable currency situation and trom balanced national budgets would be reflected not only in foreign” business but in a marked improvement in domestic business in each charter member.

We wish to emphasize that these are the benefits that would accrue to nations that join as charter members and furnish the chiet �[Page 200]200 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

reason for their adherence, whether capitalistic or proletarian, and these benefits would extend to those nations we have classed «: mandates or territories, because they would be given the benefit : all these economies although they would have to await their furthe: growth and development politically to enjoy full local or domesti government and full participation in the Union. But when we come to consider the effect on those countries stubborn and refrac tory enough to hold themselves aloof and defeat adherence to the Union, those nations we have classed as “foreign,” we cannot sec that any of these benefits would result to them. They would stil! need a national army and navy and very likely a much larger onc. so that their national budget would have a still heavier burden Their position on the high seas and in world ports would likels be more restricted, they would have no benefit of the reformea and single currency of the Union, and the chances would be that bal- ances of trade would run against them and their gold reserves be in constant danger. Their currency would not be redeemable in gold except in their own country and rates of exchange would likely be against them most of the time. They would receive little or no benefit from the new banking system and their war debt would still endanger their budget and national currency. Aside from all these obvious handicaps, they would be a “foreign’’ coun: try without any benefits from probable tariff reforms between the participating nations, and, at the will of the Empire, their exports might have to pay an extra toll to use the high seas and enter the big market of the World Union, so that indirectly they might have to help pay off the wai debt of the charter members without re- ceiving any benefits from the reforms.

These handicaps would apply to proletarian countries as wel! as to capitalistic countries who refused: to join the Union. Under the present system we must admit that proletarian countries may have one advantage over capitalistic countries because of their full control of exports and imports, enabling them to play one country against another and make all foreign countries bid for their trade. by concentrating their foreign trade first in one country and then �[Page 201]WORLD CITIZENSHIP Lit

» another. But should a proletarian country find itselt sitting on ‘se outside of a World Union under world citizenship principles. sich an advantage would be lost because the Union would present ‘cit the united front of all participating countrics.

Some readers may concede these advantages to a World Union, out think it is going too far to have it embrace the whole world. Iiey may say that consolidation should follow geographic and racial lines to be successful; that while Europe might well form such a Union, the Americas another and likely Asia a third, it sould be unwise to attempt to combine all races and continents 1 one government. Our answer is that such group or race consolidation would, in ‘ractice, intensify the conflicting charac- teristics of each group, particularly those characteristics that lcad ‘oimperialism, and lay down the lines for another clash of civiliza- nons. For one thing, each group would say, we must capture our -are of the world now or we will never get it.

The world today in a business sense is one community. Mass production demands one market, the world market and ignores zcography and races. The gold standard, or any other standard in nnance and banking, should be world wide to mect the needs ot sur world wide business and these matters can be provided for ond controlled only where there is one government in charge of tose matters now classed as “exterritorial.” Dividing the world ito three or more groups would continue exterritoriality and con: tinuc, if not increase, rivalry in armaments, tariff wars, the race problem, and the war debts could not well be apportioned for re: tunding; it would also leave the world saddled with the problem ot the high seas and combinations for the balance of power. It would prolong rather than put a practical end to militarism. The Federalist presented many military arguments in favor of one gov- crnment rather than three or four for America in 178y, showing dearly the rivalry, military as well as economic, that would result today from an American group, a European group and an Asian group, �[Page 202]WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

t- O es

“Leave America divided into thirteen or, if you please, into three or four independent governments—what armies could they raise and pay—what fleets could they ever hope to have? If one was attacked. would the others fly to its succor, and spend their blood and money in its defense? Would there be no danger of tier being flattered into neutrality by its specious promises, or se- duced by a too great fondness for peace to decline hazarding their tr. inqquility and present safety for the sake of neighbors, of whom perhaps they have been jealous, and whose importance they are content to sce diminished? Although such conduct would not be wise, it would, nevertheless, be natural. But admit that they might be willing to help the invaded State or confederacy. How, and when, and in what proportion shall aids of men and money be witorded? Who shall command the allied armies, and from which ot them shall he receive his orders? Who shall settle the terms ot peace, and in case of disputes what umpire shall decide between them and compel acquiescence? Various difficulties and incon- vemtences would be inseparable from such a situation; whereas one covernment, watching over the general and common interests, and combining and directing the powers and resources of the whole. would be tree trom all these embarrassments, and conduce far more to the safety of the people.”

Not a contingency outlined above but what we have seen 1I- lustrated during the World War. The American groups under consideration in 1789 were a New England group, a Central and w Southern group, with doubt as to whether New York would join the Central or the New England group. There were also foreign powers with colonics close by ready to flatter New York or any group into an alliance either before or after these groups were tormed. Today the place of New York might well be taken by some nation in the Near East or again by some nation in Centra! or South America and it is probable that some one or more strong iuitions might refuse to join any group and prefer to seek alliances. Iinally, do we desire the formation of any white group and a vel: low group under any consideration? With the interests of rival �[Page 203]WORLD CITIZENSHIP 203

croups clashing and strong ‘‘foreign’” nations to ferment discord and breed military alliances we find the conditions of 1789 paral- icled by 1933.

If we add to these military handicaps of group organization the complete failure to meet those world economic conditions that have brought on our depression, one may well ask, what possible use could there be in the struggles needed to reform the world into a number of larger, competing racial group organizations? In re- ard to remedying the economic prgblems from which our depres- sion resulted, history teaches that united action of the entire world business community aftected is needed. Also there is general agree- ment in each nation that the economic reforms we have suggested would be markedly beneficial. In other words there is unanimity as to the reforms that would work out our salvation. Why should the enlightened public opinion in each nation now favor these reforms and later, when brought together in a world group like the coming World Economic Conference, change face about and re- ‘ect them? Baird, in his valuable book, “The Rise of American Civilization,” throws a new light on this phase of our world organ- ation problem.

“For more than a hundred years it was the custom of historians, in speaking of the work of the delegates—to the Philadelphia Convention—to emphasize their differences of opinion, their im- passioned controversies, and their compromises, whereas as a miat- ter of fact they exhibited a striking unanimity of opinion on the zteat economic objects which they had assembled to attain. For this we have the testimony of a competent scholar, R. L. Schuyler, who has put the whole story of the making of the Constitution in . new perspective by showing, on the basis of authentic researches, that the essential agreements of the Philadelphia Convention were more significant than its disputes.

“In the light of his inquiries, it appears that a safe majority of te members was early mustered on nearly all the fundamental issues before them. If they warmly debated many matters pertain- ing to means and instrumentalities, they agreed with relative case �[Page 204]204 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

Pn

that the national government must be erected and endowed wit. ample power to defend the country on land and sea, to pay the national debt, to protect private property against agrarian legisla- tures, to secure the return of fugitive servants, and to uphold the public order against domestic insurrection. This basic fact should not be obscured in any consideration of the long and tempestuous arguments that arose over the form of the new government and the representation of the States in it.

“On the creation of a great national agency endowed with political power equal to specific tasks of the highest, order there was so much solidarity of opinion that the objections of the insur. gent few merely emphasized the general concord.”

We believe the leading national statesmen, economists and financiers, the world over, in theory now favor a World Union, a world currency based on the gold standard, a world banking sys- tem, the payment of all public debts, the reduction of armaments and other like reforms; but they see no acceptable “means and in- strumentalities” for vitalizing them without detriment to their local interests and without “losing face” on national sovereignty and national honor. In practice, they see only the imperialistic parlia- mentiry form of world government, again it is a quarrel over means and forms rather than over the substance of the remedy. We are urging a full and careful consideration of the federated type of World Union as the “means and instrumentalities” by which these reforms can be secured while harmonizing national “admin- istrations, legislatures and patriotisms;” and we believe that the constitutional reforms of World Citizenship will make it possible to solve our economic, fiscal and racial problems. �[Page 205]WAR DEBTS—WORLD LIABILITY OR WORLD ASSET?

by

ROYAL WILBUR FRANCE

Professor of Economics, Rollins College

HE war debts are considered a European liability to Amer-

| ica. Debts and liabilities are usually synonymous terms. As

IA. a matter of bookkeeping they are an asset of the United

States. “They owe us the money. Let them pay and shut

up!” was the elegant way that one member of Congress expressed

the American side of the great argument. Some of our bemused

debtors reply, “With what and how?” while others are growing defiant and making faces at us.

But what if it should appear that in fact it would be more harmful to the United States to collect than to forego and more injurious to Europe to repudiate than to pay? That would raise the accounting question to another level altogether.

An impasse can only be bridged by what is known to the so- viologist as the cooperative technique for resolving conflict.* If we desire to avoid disaster it would be advisable for congressmen and statesmen, if any, to study it. In this war debt controversy the position of either side, stated by itself, sounds not merely reason- able but irrefutable. That one-sided statement has a convincing sound is not an unusual phenomenon as any one who has judicial experience will readily understand. Met by an equally one-sided statement from the opposition, if there is no judicial tribunal em- powered to decide and neither will listen to the other, the result in private argument is a brawl and perhaps a fist fight and in inter- national affairs may mean a severance of diplomatic relations or even a resort to arms. The modern world has far from recovered

“ihe Art of Straight Thinking. Clarke. Appleton. �[Page 206]206 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

from its last frenzy in that line. We all see that another such lock: ing of maddened bulls’ horns as took place from 1914 to 1918 1s not to be courted, war debt payments or no war debt payments unless civilization, cuphemistically so called, is eager for its own destruction. No man in his senses wants another world war o: even prolongation of acrimonious controversy between nations We rightly fear any split over major issues because we have learned to our lasting sorrow that international argumentation is loadcc with dynamite. National intercsts coming inte conflict menace the peace of the world unless we can agree with our adversaries quick ly before the passions of patriotism have become inflamed. Once something said or done about a debt touches our sensitive nation.:! honors it is necessary to begin the preparation of anesthetics and Red Cross bandages.

How can we get statesmen to learn the simple principle ot discussion at a higher level underlying the cooperative technique of social conflict? Can we induce them to apply reason and good: will to the problems that confront nations? One way would be by choosing intelligent statesmen in the first place. That apparently 1s difficult. To hope that we can persuade the American Congress to take a world view in the light of recent utterances from Capito! Hill seems utopian. Perhaps if we can make it clear that by gain- ing our life through selfish nationalism we will surely lose it and that by giving up something we will make immeasurable gains we can at least appeal to a more enlightened self interest.

The way to resolve seemingly insoluble conflict problems is to extract the truth from both sides of the argument instead of stupid. ly continuing to sce and state only one side. The first phase then is clarification of the problem in terms of the different groups in- volved and the stakes which they have or believe that they have 11 the outcome. The second involves considering the advantages and disadvantages to cach group of cach course of action proposed The last step involves adopting the course which best reconcilcs apparently incompatible aims and views. There is always a larger vicw. It considers not only the interest of the smaller group but �[Page 207]WAR DEBTS 207

the larger of which it is a part. When we consider the United

“tutes not merely as a separate nation but as an organ of an extreme- _ sick world can our views and practical attitudes fail to be difter- eat’ We can scarcely imagine a healthy member in a dying body. The argument on war debts has reached an impasse. If debts could be changed from a European liability to a world assct by | urope paying and making herself the immeasurable gainer and _j e United States surrendering something and reaping incompara- benefits, that chasm would be bridged. The sad and heartsick -orld of the depression years would feel a new surge of hope. The un that was clouded by the disillusioning treatv of Versailles sould shine once more. The cynicism and despair of the post-war »eriod must be dissipated by a broader statesmanship and a wider sion of world economics and mutual interests among the nations. \Ve all know this but a practical way of realizing it must be found. The present proposal proceeds from the following premises which seem to fit the facts;

+. That the present cepression derives from an insutliciency wad steady diminishment of world purchasing power. That reme- ul measures must now be directed to the stimulation of purchas- ng power,

2, That our European debtors will be further embarrassed by the transfer to us of large sums in gold without corresponding nenefits to us from gold transfer in view of the present maldistribu- son of the world gold supply.

3. That the payment by the transfer of goods to us is imprac- cable in the light of our own overproduction and of the fact that -hat we desperately need is not goods but markets.

4. Per contra, that the American Congress and the American »cople are in no mood to consider cancellation with favor, espec- lly in view of the continued large expenditures of our European ‘cbtors on armaments at the very period when they are asking us ‘1 relieve them from their debts.

5. That in the large view cancellation would prove humil- ting and embarrassing and in the end injurious to debtor coun- �[Page 208]208 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

trics when they find themselves ia the position of seeking further loans and would constitute an unfortunate precedent from the standpoint of creditor countries. Either repudiation or wholesale cancellation might make international finance an impossible gamble for generations to come.

We come to the point then where payment to us either in gold or goods is undesirable and repudiation or cancellation equally undesirable from the standpoint ot debtors and creditors alike. Our proposal recognizes a community of interest in finding some way in which the debts can be paid which will constitute the min- imum of embarrassment to debtors and creditors and the maximum of stimulation of purchasing power in countries which are at one and the same time both our creditors and our customers and in our own country as well. Loving our neighbors as well as ourselves implics no slightest obligation to love them any better.

Wc come now to our conclusion which involves the answer to the question, ‘In what form can payment be made which will mect most satisfactorily all of the conditions of our problem?”

Our handling of the Boxer indemnity by turning it back to China for educational purposes constitutes at least the suggestion of a precedent. We propose;

1. That cach of the debtor countries set aside a certain portion of the payments due to us for the purpose of paying for scholar- ships for American students who wish to prepare themselves for the consular or other foreign service and for other high grade grad- uates of our colleges. The Rhodes scholarships are a model ot what we have in mind. From such an outlay, which could be quite a substantial sum, we would derive a national benefit from ex- penditures made in the debtor countries. No transfer of funds to us would be involved.

2. That a fund be set aside by the debtor countries for the transport and entertainment of large numbers of American school and college teachers. These teachers could be carried to Europe cach summer in the ships of debtor countries and be entertained by them without the necessity of transfer of funds to us. The sum in- �[Page 209]WAR DEBTS 209

volved would be substantial and the vitalizing of our educational system immeasurable while our debtor countries would secure a corresponding benefit not only from the stimulation of expendi. tures in them but from the humanizing contacts and mutual ex- changes in viewpoints that would take place.

3. A certain number of foreign students could be sent to and supported in American colleges and universities at the expense of debtor countries. This item would involve some money being trans- terred here but the sum involved would be slight compared to the benefits to the debtors themselves educationally and would result in a desirable reciprocity.

4. A large number of books could be sent to schools, colleges and public libraries in the languages of the debtor countries and since these would be largely books not published in America would not compete with our home publishers. Maps and certain works of art would fall in this same category. Also there is considerable technical and laboratory equipment which we could take from our debtor countries of a type whch would be most useful to our educa- tional system and not in competition with equipment produced here

5. That each of the debtor countries place orders for the manufacture within their own countries of goods to be delivered to the American Red Cross or other agencies to be designated by the American Government for the relief of destitution throughout the world. Consumer goods could be distributed for example, in India and China on a large scale without unduly disturbing exist- ing business because they could be delivered to people who have ttle or nothing with which to buy goods which have to be handled through the ordinary channels of trade. Tho orders should be ot 4 nature to make the maximum demands on the primary markets which are of interest to the American farmer.

We are not now attempting to present the plan in detail and in order to do so in any adequate way would require an inter national conference of experts. To illustrate what we have in mind however, England would place orders with cotton textile mills in �[Page 210]210 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

England for an agreed number of dollars worth of cotton cloth. It should be stipulated that the cotton should be purchased from our Farm Board or other American sources at prices to be agreed upon, They would thus buy the raw cotton from us at a favorable price thereby relieving the cotton surplus and stimulating the price of cetton. They would have to transfer substantial sums in gold to us under this item of the progtam to pay for the cotton but since the cost of the raw material is a relatively small proportion of the cost of the finished goods and since the balance of the money would go di- rect to English cotton mills for the stimulation of their languishing businesses they would gain much more than they paid. When the cloth was completed it would be delivered to the American Red Cross for distribution to our unemployed or in China or wherever we might decide. Orders for wheat products for distribution to our destitute and for delivery to the underfed populations of China and India could rapidly clean up world wheat surpluses and raise the market price of wheat for the American farmer. The Govern: ment would get its repayment, not directly, but indirectly through the increase of income tax returns that would result from returning confidence and a revival of business not only here but abroad. This principle could be worked out in detail. It is not im- possible that conditions could be developed for the delivery of producers’ goods in the nature of modern machinery and equip- ment to some of the backward countries and that the application of the same idea to the Russian question could work out their ac- quiring needed equipment against their five yar plan and restor- ing themselves to the community of nations by satisfying their in- ternational debts. We are suggesting that as we were able to work out an elaborate international organization to win the war, using American money for the purpose, so we use American money, now owing to us, to form an international organization to win the peace. It is obvious that the plan as presented is susceptible of adoption in part or great modifications. If adopted, it would need the scru- tiny and sifting of many minds in many countries but to set such a plan in motion at this time would be an act of the highest possible �[Page 211]WAR DEBTS 211

statesmanship. Who can fail to envy Franklin Roosevelt his oppor- tunity at such a crisis in world affairs and to shudder at his re- sponsibility? For suppose that he should fail? Suppose that Amer- ica should fail? The world’s reserves, material and spiritual, are close to the exhaustion point. Signs of breakdown appear on every hand.

Is our plan chimerical? Only if self interest has so blinded the nations of the world to their real interests that they will be un- able to visualize the immense benefits, both material and spiritual, that would come to them from considering themselves not as in- dividual nations but as members of a world community.

The way lies open before us. If we step back into the narrow by-ways of the past, darkened as they are by the passions and ha- treds and the spilled blood of millions, chaos and destruction may have to be our portion. That has been the lot of all past civiliza- tions. They tried to base prosperity on selfishness and they failed. If we fail, the building of a fairer and better world may once again have to await the birth of a more benevolent and a more intelligent generation. �[Page 212]A REAL DEFENCE OF RELIGION by |

WALLACE W. WILLARD

in an effort to withstand the forces of negation that threaten

it on every side.

In this conflict it is of central importance that we remind our: sclves that the logical understanding has inexorable limits in the quest of ultimate truth. A full and clear recognition of this fact would go far toward relieving the widespread unrest that exists today, To believe that we must anxiously wait on every new de- liverance of science, philosophy and psychology for the verifica- tion of religion is to condemn the soul to a ceaseless quest with no hope of arrival.

Logic may serve religion but cannot of itself discover religion. Its function is strictly limited to concepts and concepts are abstrac- tions. Reality emerges only in the direct impinging of the Whole on the totality of man’s nature. The function of logic in relation to rcligion is a negative one; it serves to clear the way, that the deeper intuitive self may find expression. It blazes a path through the tangled undergrowths of superstition and wrong-thinking that stifle the religious instinct. It is a John the Baptist that preparcs in the wilderness a highway for the God who is within. Its func- tion is to train the telescope, not to see the star, to adjust the pointer on the dial, not to hear the voices and the music that comc over the radio. Like the electric wires that extend from the central dynamo in a great municipality to every part of the city, bringing light and heat and power for human need, conceptual thought makes available for use the mysterious energies that issue from the central power house of man’s deeper nature. Like the mysterious

I N the parlance of war, organized religion is now “digging in” �[Page 213]THE REAL DEFENCE - 213

hlaments of the nervous system that are tracks over which the life current travels from the central cerebral cortex to the utmost pe- riphery of the body, conceptual thought constructs the traction lines that make the deeper life forces operative; but neither wires nor nerves are to be confounded with the current of energy. That the processes of logical reasoning can never reach ultimate truth is a conclusion forced on anyone who finds himself enmeshed in the web of modern controversial thought. Logic has to do with particulars or what is abstracted from the Whole; religion has to do with the Whole. Logic is a process of unfolding what is already enfolded in the premises; religion has to do with Reality itself. Logic is mechanical and deals with surfaces; religion is vital and deals with essences.

Thus it is true that if ultimate reality is to be gained, if the whole is in any way to be apprehended, it must be by some other method than that of the syllogism which by its very nature is dis- qualified for the religious quest. Religion is “either self-evident or incomprehensible.” And this lines religion with art. Beauty does not appeal to logic but to appreciation. The sense of beauty precedes any concept by which we may try to explain it. Here as in religion and wherever ultimate values are concerned, the con- cept is last, not first, a human construction, not a divine and original influx. Whether it be the beauty of religion that we have in mind or the religion of beauty the same is true:

“Beauty through my senses stole, I gave myself to the perfect Whole.”

When Dante and Virgil reached the farther confines of Pur- uaitory, Virgil, symbolizing intellect, fastened his cyes on Dante and said:

“, . . . thou. . . toa place art come Where of myself no farther I discern; By intellect and art I here have brought thee.

Expect no more or word or sign from me; �[Page 214]214 “WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

Thee o’er thyself I therefore crown and mitre!” Virgil had reached the limit of his power as guide and tells his charge to go forward under higher direction.

It will be great gain for multitudes in our perplexed modern situation if we can get a clear idea of what present-day religious thought at its best is saying upon this subject. That the source of religion is beyond the concept was long ago expressed by James Russell Lowell among the poets in lines taken from “The Ca. thedral”:

“If sometimes I must hear good men debate Ot other witness to Thyself than Thou, As if there needed any help of ours To nurse Thy flickering light, that else must cease, Blown out, as 'twere a candle, by men’s breath, My soul shall not be taken in their snare, To change her inward surety for their doubt Muffled from sight in formal robes of proof.”

In turning to our philosophers we find this poetical instinct of Lowell expressed in terms of unmetered, sober thought. “It is mys- 'ticism," says Professor Hocking of Harvard University, ‘that unites the certainty that God exists and that all explanations are inade- quate.” ‘The most flawless proof of the existence of God,” says Professor Eddington the Oxford astronomer, “is no substitute for it (relationship with God) and if we have that relationship the most convincing disproof is turned harmlessly aside.” “Nothing in religion,” says Professor Hartely Burr Alexander, ‘‘is more des- perate than just this fact, that we have come to look—so many men, so many—upon human religious experience as a thing to be explained, and not as itself the explanation, regal over all.” “Your purely conceptual thinker,” says Professor James Bissett Pratt, “'is ever at one remove from reality.” In “The Pilgrimage of Budd- hism” Professor Pratt presents a wealth of material showing that the best exponents of Buddhism have a profound sense of the utter disparity between reality itself and all symbols that seek to reflect it: “Your true Zen (Chinese Buddhist) will discuss philosophy with �[Page 215]THE REAL DEFENCE 215

vou as long as you like, he will read books and write them but he is not troubled by the thought that all the philosophers and all the books may be mistaken for he knows that the best and truest of these are but fingers pointing to the moon... . . If we fix our gaze upon the finger we miss the heavenly glory. The finger is of use only in pointing away from itself to the light which illumines inger and all.” And quoting the Buddhist authority Suzuki: ‘The highest truth is unfathomably deep, it is not an object of thought ot discussion and even the canonical texts have no way to bring it within our reach. Let us once see into our original nature and we have truth even if we are illiterate, not knowing a thing.” This ast quotation suggests the words of Jesus about becoming as a little child in order to enter the kingdom of heaven.

These reflections of current thought point to the self-sufficiency of religion. Rising from a point beyond the concept it exists in its own right and is not dependent on any body of concepts. Rather it gives rise to conceptual systems which are imperfect and often ctratic efforts to express in intellectual symbols that which in it- self is non-rational. In other words religion so considered is au- tonomous. As Dean Inge has expressed it “Mysticism (which the Dean has characterized as ‘pure religion’) has given to the spiritual life the right to stand on its own feet and rest on its own evidence.”

Too long has religion paid obeisance to the concept. The time has come when a defensive attitude must give way to an offensive. A religion that is ever anxious to make peace with science, phi- losophy and psychology is bankrupt. Religion is made to command and not to serve.

There are signs that the tide is turning and that religion, re- lieved of the incubus of misconceptions and doubts

‘“Muffled from sight in formal robes of proof" is about to reassert itself as a simple and elemental power in human life.

This tendency is seen not only in the growing impatience with conceptual systems that often blind the souls of men to the deeper realities which they only succeed in obscuring, but in the positive �[Page 216]216 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

spiritual interpretations that are piercing the intellectual wrappings of reality and discovering the simple and basic truths on which religion rests.

It would not be an over-bold assertion to say that science is to: day doing more to make religion real in the minds of thinking men than are the professional theologians. The professional theologian still too often speaks a language in bondage to the concept and in a dialect foreign to the modes of modern thought. On the other hand science with its empirical approach to truth and its reliance on experience is paving the way, though unwittingly, for a new appreciation of religion as a vital reality in human life.

Further, the positive results of science are pointing in an as. tounding way toward a spiritual interpretation of the universe as entirely consistent with, and even demanded by, the strictest sci- entific methods of research. Modern science is a Moses leading the children of men out of the land of bondage but as Moses, modern science can go no farther than the border of the Promised Land. In the words of L. P. Jacks: “We are in sight of a new intimacy be- tween ourselves and the universe, in the strength of which we shall no longer think of the universe as a dumb and awful object threat: cning to overwhelm us with its immensities, but rather as the em- bodied word of living God, addressed to us. To some of our great- est poets, Keats and Shelley, Wordsworth and Blake, this intuition has been self-evident; but while for them it rests on the intuition of exalted moments, we are now finding our way to it through the teaching of that very science which once seemed to be leading us in the opposite direction. It is no exaggeration to say that mysticism itself is acquiring a scientific basis.”

A direct corollary of religion conceived as deriving from the secret depths of personality and prior to its expression in concep- tual thinking is the unity, in their inmost essence, of the great re- ligions of the world. This does not mean that we shall equate every religion with every other but it is to recognize that there is a light that lighteth every man coming into the world since “in Him we live and move and have our being.” From the bottom rung of pure �[Page 217]THE REAL DEFENCE 217

magic to the topmost rung of pure spirituality where the spiritual principle has disengaged itself from all alien admixtures and be- come tegnant, may be traced the stages wherein the divine has revealed itself in the human. An American lecturer in India re- corded the fact he had become conscious of a certain ‘‘spiritual consanguinity” between himself and the Hindus. This same con- sanguinity is felt wherever human spirits touch each other in their profoundest depths. Tradition, culture, creeds, ritual, idiosyncra- cies—all superficial features of personality—drop away when the innermost man speaks.

There is nothing in the whole range of contemporary life so hopeful for the future welfare of mankind as the resurgence of the religious spirit in its elemental simplicity and the growing recog- nition of the spiritual bond that binds together men of all races, creeds and traditions. The practical implications of this fact point the only way out of the jungles of misunderstanding and strife into the open places of an ordered and happier world.

Another corollary of utmost significance flowing from the conception of religion under consideration is this: Religion, taking its rise from the elemental depths of the soul, is omnific, all-creative in every realm and range of human life, and conversely, life be- comes automatically sterile wherever it is separated from conscious relation to the Whole wherein essentially religion consists.

The human spirit is at its deepest level super-conceptual and has access to things that “have not entered into the heart of man to conceive” and to know, in its deeper sense, is not to arrive at an inference by a process of reasoning; it

“Rather consists in opening out a way

Whence the imprisoned splendour may escape.” It proceeds from a es lea wad source within us, where broods radiance vast, To be elicited ray by ray.” And from this source proceed great creations of the human spirit as well as the radiant lives of the humblest and most inconspicuous of those around us. Everywhere and always real life is to be meas- �[Page 218]218 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

ured by the purity and volume of the stream that flows from this fountain-head. Everything is religious in its cssential nature that expresses in whatever degree the Universal in terms of Truth, Beauty and Goodness.

Depth and expansion are what we need today—depth to plumb with Tennyson “the abysmal depth of personality” whence all cre- ative impulses proceed and expansion to recognize the unity of rcligion that underlies its widely diverse symbolic expressions in creed and ritual and in the arts that seek to body forth in music, in painting and in literature the Universal Reality within the phe- nomenal world that is ever seeking recognition in the lives of men.

There are experiences which if not religious in the commonly accepted sense are certainly religious as witnesses to a higher di- mension of life ever waiting to be “tapped” by the human spirit. A striking illustration of such an experience, taken from the realm of music, is found in the “Education of Henry Adams” wherein the autobiographer tells us that until one day of revelation he had loathed the music of Beethoven. On that day he had been reluctant: ly persuaded by friends to go to a beer garden and again, for fel- lowship’s sake, listen to the music he loathed. His own words may state what happened: “He could not be more astonished had he read a new language. Among the marvels of education this was the most marvellous... A prison wall that barred his senses on one side of life fell of its own accord without his so much as knowing when it happened. Among the fumes of coarse tobacco and poor beer, surrounded by the coarsest of haus frauen a new sense burst out like a flower in his life, so superior to the old senses, so be: wildering, so astonished at its own existence that he could not credit itand watch it as something apart, accidental and not to be trusted.” In this experience we cannot doubt that Henry Adams had “‘deal- ings with the Secret-Ground of the universe inaccessible to con- ceptual thought.”

The history of art is the history of a pre-logical instinct in the soul of man secking expression in the world of sense. Whether it be a cave man depicting buffaloes on cavern walls in France before �[Page 219]THE REAL DEFENCE 219

the dawn of history and with a fidelity unrivalled today or Michel- angelo painting frescos on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at Rome; whether it be the builders of temples now only known in their majestic ruins or the creators of those piles that everywhere in Europe today bear witness to the spirit of Beauty seeking embodi- ment in stone—in every instance we are in the presence of a super- conceptual urge that cannot rest until it is clothed in sensuous form. ‘The work of religion,” Professor Hocking has said, “ is a per- petual parentage; the status of the arts is a perpetual dependence."

To limit the creative power of religion, however, to an eso- teric experience or to the fine arts would be to falsify it at the very point which needs emphasis today. If religion be the total response of the human spirit to the living Totality of things it follows that it must function outwardly through the entire gamut of human relations. There is not a human interest that does not await its ‘ife-giving touch. The chaos of politics and economics, giving rise to perplexity, confusion and strife, threatening the very existence of civilization, awaits the creative and co-ordinating power of the religious sentiment without which all policies of expediency and strategies of statecraft must end either in a stalemate or in universal destruction. Gandhi’s program for India rests on his belief that “soul-force,” active on a national scale, will eventually win inde- pendence of his people; and Mukerji, a native son of India, closes his book ‘“‘Disillusioned India” with these words: “India has given many religions to the world. She may now be giving a new method of gaining political freedom without resort to war.”

To sum up: Religion springs from a source deeper than con- ceptual thinking. Formal logic deals with abstractions and is in- capable of grasping truth as a whole. The insights of all high poetry and philosophy attest the primacy of the religious instinct and the secondary importance of discursive thought in the quest f ultimate truth. The universality of religion and the fundamental unity of “religions” follow as corollaries. Finally, the recognition of vital religion as the all-creative factor in human life emerges. �[Page 220]INTERNATIONAL CO-CITIZENSHIP: THE SOLE BASIS OF PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL PEACE by RAPHAEL BUCK

A WORLD at peace must be a world at peace in substance as

well as in form. It must be a world in which the brotherhood

of man is recognized as a scientific and juridical fact in-

stead of being regarded as a beautiful but unsubstantia! dream. It must be a world in which the various countries are merely convenient administrative and geographical units which though po- litically independent are commercially integrated by custom-house- less frontiers with all the rest of the world. It must be a world in which the most favored nation principle is extended to mean the xranting by the government of each nation to the people of every other nation of the same rights and privileges which are enjoyed by ity own people and in which, therefore, all restrictions upon and ail special laws relating to the movements of population, of capital, ot merchandise and of shipping from one country to another and between one country and another have disappeared from the sta- tute books. It must be a world, in short, in which every man is 2 citizen of the world, a citizen in one country having all the rights and privileges of citizenship in every other country and being, to all intents and purposes, a citizen of every other country.

In such a world there would be no motive for wars between nations, Nations fight for territory but the territory of the whole world would, under a system of international co-citizenship as here advocated, be open to the people of the whole world. Nations ight tor trade but the ports of the whole world would, under such a system, be open to the trade of the whole world and on the same terms to all nations including the nation in whose territory a par- �[Page 221]INTERNATIONAL CO-CITIZENSHIP 221

ticular port is situated. Nations fight for field of investment for their capital but under the plan of international co-citizenship for- cign capital would be guaranteed the same rights and privileges in any country as native capital enjoys. And what, at the bottom, in most instances, is even a war for national independence but a strug- cle by one people to secure equal political and civil rights with the people to whom it is, for the time being, subject, and such equality of rights would be secured to the people of the entire uvilized world by the adoption of the plan of international co- citizenship herein put forward and which, in combination with the grant of automony as to matters of local concern, would make a war ot secession as Criminally stupid as a war to prevent secession.

The adoption by the nations of the worid of the system of in- ternational co-citizenship, as here proposed, so that a man shall have the same civil and political rights in any country regardless of his country of origin as a native has and, similarly, that the capital and merchandise of the people of any country may be imported into any other country without meeting with any discriminatory or prohibi- tive tax or tariff in favor of native capital or native merchandise, the adoption of this system of international co-citizenship, embody- ing, as it would, for the first time in human history the principle of the brotherhood of man as a part of international law, will not, it is true, in itself deprive the nations of the power to wage war but it will deprive them of all incentive as well as of all excuse for doing 0, and only when nations will no longer have either any incentive or any excuse for war and not until then will they cease to wage war.

International co-citizenship means the opening up of the economic opportunities of the world to all the nations of the world and it means, therefore, the enlargement of the economic opportunities of the people of all nations by as much as the whole carth is larger than any one country. Nor is any country so rich in resources and facilities for the supply of human wants nor yet so poor that the throwing open to the people of the whole world of the economic resources and facilities of the whole world would not immensely aid such country in the production of wealth and �[Page 222]222 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

in more profitable inter-change of its products with other countries while clevating correspondingly its standards of living and of com fort. Nor, again, are the wages of labor in any country so high nor yct so low that the throwing open of the markets of the entire world to the products of the industry of the entire world would not

vastly increase the demand for labor in such country and corres pr ndingly increase labor's reward. High wages are the reflex o! high productivity, and cannot, in any event, be overborne by low wages based on low productivity. Neither can the importation o! torcign goods possibly undermine native industry since such goods must necessarily be paid for, directly or indirectly, by the exporta tion of the products of native industry. It may, indeed, be quite unprofitable, as a commercial proposition, in the absence of a pro- tective tariff——and aided only by a glass roof and steam heat—to endeavor to raise bananas in the Aleutian Islands, but it were bette: tor the Aleutian Islanders as well as for the rest of the world that the tormer confine their industrial efforts to sealing and the like and the rest of the world will then see to it that Aleutian Islanders arc kept fairly well supplied with bananas. Tariff barriers, like minc barricrs at sea or barbed wire entanglements on land are quite scr viccable regarded as an integral part of the mechanism of war and so that a nation may not in an age of universal militancy and ot universal preparedness for war and universal expectation of war be commercially dependent upon foreigners. Such obstructions. however, to international commerce, to international unity and to international good will as tariff systems are would be as great an anachronism in and as great a menace to a world order supposed: lv based on universal and perpetual peace, as would frontiers brist ling with fortifications and seas swarming with battleships.

The surrender by each nation of the special rights and priv: ileges now possessed by its members as against foreigners, the tbolition of all discriminatory laws and all discriminatory dutie: and taxes against foreign merchandise, foreign capital, foreign Shipping, ete, far from involving any loss or sacrifice to the na tions making such surrender is in reality an essential condition to �[Page 223]INTERNATIONAL CO-CITIZENSHIP 223

their highest prosperity and to their being able to make the most t their natural resources and abilities. Yet such is the surrender that must be made by the nations of the world to avoid the un- syeakable horrors and calamities of otherwise inevitable future world wars and the otherwise inevitable destruction over a world- wide area of all that has been built up in a thousand years of la- borious effort. With the present amazing developments and im- provements in the means of communication and transportation so that, shortly, the different countries of the world will become but as different wards or quarters of one, gigantic, earth-encircling city, the various nations and races of mankind must reconcile them- clves to the thought of living together and working together on the basis of amity and of equality and mutuality of rights and of interests, in other words, on the basis of international co-citizen- ship, or, blinded by age-old prides and hatreds and armed with the new and all too efficient means of destruction which they are now fashioning and improving, they will perish together in a .oming Armageddon and a new cycle of barbarism, slowly and painfully developing through the centuries into civilization, will begin its course.

But it will be asked, “Will not the geographical intermingling on a large scale of races of lower standards of living and of cul- ture with those of higher standards as must necessarily result over large portions of the world through the operation of the plan of international co-citizenship, as here advocated, prove directly detri- mental to the latter races and directly destructive to such higher standards?” It is this fear which is, of course, largely responsible tor such drastic anti-foreign legislation as, for example, the Asiatic exclusion laws of the United States, Canada and Australia and which laws, if not abolished, must at some future day involve these countries in a life-and-death struggle with the populous and, perhaps, by that time, as powerful as populous countries of Eastern and Southern Asia.

Let us examine, then, the validity of the argument against the universal freedom of migration on the ground of the alleged dan- �[Page 224]224 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

ger to countries having high standards of living and of culture of immigration from countries with lower standards. And, first, let us ask: In what country is the standard of living or the standard of culture of the various classes of the population that now inhabit such country equal‘and uniform or anything that most remotel; approaches that condition? Is the standard of living of a hod carrier, for example, in any part of the United States equal to that of a bricklayer, or is the latter's standard of living at all com- parable with that of, say, a brick manufacturer? Yet in what respect is the hod carrier's lower standard of living a menace to the bricklayer, and since when have brick manufacturers begun to tremble because of the relatively pitiful income of bricklayers? If. then, leaving aside for the moment, the question of cultural differ: ences, there is, quite irrespective of immigration, the greatest pos- sible disparity of incomes and of earning power between the vari: ous classes in a modern industrial nation and if, as we see, those in the medium and higher income groups are not at all adversely affected by the presence of vast numbers with much lower in- comes, the differences in income under modern industrial condi- tions, aside from the effects of legal monopolies, being due, in the main, to differences in productivity or in the importance of the individual's economic function as determined by the law of supply and demand, why must we suppose that the introduction even of a very considerable population of foreigners accustomed to a low standard of living, but whose economic efficiency is correspond: ingly low, would be detrimental to those who do not themselves stand at a still lower level of economic efficiency? Or if we assume that such foreigners, either in the first or subsequent generations. would gradually develop a higher degree of productivity, which under the operation of economic law would necessarily ensure them correspondingly enlarged returns, either in wages or other forms of income, would such enlarged returns be at the expense of the other elements of the population? Assuredly not. For what the newcomers or their descendants would thus take out of the social fund could not be more than what they will have put into �[Page 225]INTERNATIONAL CO-CITIZENSHIP 225

it in labor or other forms of service, and for every man who would possibly be displaced by their competition to find another field for his activities, one more in accord with his abilities, room would be made for a dozen to help supply the market for goods and services which the presence of the new element in the population would directly and indirectly create.

But perhaps it will be argued that the mere numerical increase of population brought about by immigration is in itself a detriment to the natives of a country by decreasing the ratio of land to popu- lation and so increasing the pressure of population upon the means of subsistence. The tendency of population, however, in any coun- trv, gradually to increase, in any event, to, what may be called, the saturation point, for that particular country and for that particular stage of industrial development is inevitable, barring certain pos- sible future changes in the sexual life of the race which need not here be taken into account and which may possibly nullify such tendency. Arbitrary restrictions upon immigration can, therefore, at the most, retard but they cannot prevent the natural expansion of the population of any country to the limits set by the natural resources of the latter and according to the progress that has been reached in the power of man to utilize these resources. At the present moment, for example, the increase of population in Eng- land purely through the excess of births over deaths and notwith- standing the lack of numerical proportion between the sexes is over one thousand a day. In the United States, at the present time, the corresponding number is twice as high.

Since, then, in any country, population must, in any event, reach of tend to reach, approximately, the maximum density which under the given conditions of production it is possible for it to attain, and since the standards of living of the various classes of the population must, in any event, reach a point corresponding with such density, it is quite useless, it is, indeed, infinitely mis- chievous, through legislation, legislation that must be provocative of war on the vastest and most horrible scale, to endeavor to combat such tendency unless it be the deliberate and insane design to in- �[Page 226]226 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

voke war for the very purpose of having war itself, through its destructiveness, serve as a check upon such population density. ,

Let us now turn to the consideration of the possible cultural danger to the countries of high cultural development of the imm:. gration of large numbers from among the races of lower types of culture, an immigration which there is no reason to suppose would in the long run, under the system of international co-citizenship, more than balance the movement of population in the opposite di- rection. Bearing in mind that each cultural group deems its own orm of culture to be the best and that each cultural form 7s, per- haps, in a sense, the best for the members of the particular cultural group and at the particular time, does it not bespeak a spirit of nicdicval intolerance as well as a lack of faith in the inherent power of its own culture for any group to: require conformity to its own cultural system as a condition to the admission of outsiders to the territory in which such group is politically dominant? As a matter of fact, there is, as a result of the unifying influence of modern science, modern invention and modern commerce, a grad: uth and steady convergence of the various civilizations of the earth, a gradual and steady spread of the same modes of living and the sume habits of thought in all countries, so that the danger is almost that the cultural life of the earth will become too monotonously uniform in character rather than that the present diversity in the de- gree and kind of civilization of the various countries will continue.

But perhaps it will be argued that the danger of free migra- tion to countries with high standards of culture consists in the possible entry into such countries of large numbers of an inferior cthnic strain, the possible entry of large numbers from among thc races that because of interior mental endowment have, through all lustory, contributed nothing to human progress and seem inherently incapable of making such contribution. To this the answer is that the same force in Nature which has developed the human species to its present biological state, the same selective and eliminative torce Which has raised man from the level of the Pithecanthropu: Evcctus and from that of the sub-human Neanderthal and of kin- �[Page 227]INTERNATIONAL CO-CITIZENSHIP 227

dred types is still at work, slowly and silently producing, through ‘he ages, a nobler and more perfect race. Those varicties, therefore, ot the human species which having lagged behind in the biological ‘evelopment are incapable of meeting the test of adaptation to the conditions of modern civilization and of the higher civilization of che future, are destined gradually to disappear, and whatever prob- cms and difficulties may arise because of their presence in the nudst of a more advanced population must, therefore, be of a tem- porary nature. Nevertheless, it is true that because of the demo- critic character of modern states conditions may arise in which a primitive race settled in large numbers amidst a population with ong traditions of civilization may become a most serious political danger to the more cultivated race through its possession of the rower of the ballot and its consequent influence upon governmen- tal policy. Similarly, two races of perhaps equal native capacity but of extremely divergent types of culture would, if occupying the same territory, present a serious problem in racial adjustment under the ordinary political method of majority coercion of mu- norities. Such race problems could be readily solved, however, upon the basis of racial autonomy. As territorial autohomy reduces the friction between populations occupying separate territories so dogs racial autonomy reduce the friction between populations of different type or race occupying the same territory. If and when, «>a result of the freedom of migration involved in the plan ot international co-citizenship, it should happen that the members ot « particular race, immigrating into a particular country in such numbers as to threaten to become the dominant political factor in tcic new home, possess a type of culture preventing their assimila tion with the remainder of the population and constituting them because of such cultural difterences a political danger to the cul- tural system of the latter, a separate autonomous governinental authority could be set up for each of the two racial clements into which the population of the particular country will thus have come to be divided, such separate autonomous racial governmental bodies to have jurisdiction in all legislative, administrative and judicial �[Page 228]228 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

matters which it is physically possible to detach from the control of the body representing the community as a whole. Thus, all the just rights and privileges of each of the racial components of the population will be safeguarded and each of them could continue in the enjovment of its own form of cultural life uninterfered with by the other and without constituting a danger to the other. However, we may well suppose that the influence of the sys. tem of international co-citizenship, a system which without infring- ing upon the sovereignty of the individual nations will, neverthe- less. in etfect, unite all mankind into one, vast, universal common: wealth, w ul ae to ase a spirit of sympathy ae a oe uncer

the rise of a new ane univ eral culture in w hich the bes elements

within the existing cultural forms will be combined and improved upon while all the unessential and undesirable teatures of the vatter will be eliminated. Racial autonomy as an expediert for the satcguarding of existing racial cultures from hostile legislative action by rival racial bodies in countries of mixed and, for the time being, mutually unassimilable population would, therefore, it adopted at all for use as between populations of European or Asiatic origin be required to meet a relatively temporary need only. The case would be rather different, however, in countries such

as tor example, South Africa, where it may be expected that, tor eyes to come, the bulx of the population will consist of a racial tock of primitive type that is but ill adapted to collaborate ad: entagcously on the political field and on a “one man one vote"

basis with the minority race that, as a body, is milleniums ahead of it in cultural development. In such a country the interest of cach race and the peace and well-being of the community as a whole “ould obviously be best conserved by establishing as a practically inchangeable political policy a system of racial autonomy that will

cnable cach race, the backward majority race as well as the more advanced minority race or the backward minority race as well as the more advanced majority race, as the case may be, to live its own lite and to develop its own institutional forms unhindered by the �[Page 229]INTERNATIONAL CO-CITIZENSHIP 229

other, each race to enjoy the rewards of its own wisdom and merit or to suffer the consequences of its own follies and vices.

Thus, peace between nations is to be secured by recognizing the equal rights of the people of all nations to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, even though such pursuit must lead men of al] nations across the political boundary lines that now separate them into opposing nationalistic camps. Only upon the basis of international co-citizenship, only upon the basis of the recognition of the right of mankind as a whole to the enjoyment of the oppor- ‘inities and resources of the planet as a whole and to the total znoring of political boundary lines, only upon such a basis can an association of aations for the maintenance of peace succeed in its ourpose. Wars between nations are due to the hitherto universal policy of national exclusiveness and only through the adoption of the opposite policy of international fellowship and the extension of all civil, political, residential and commercial rights possessed by cach nation to the people of all other nations is permanent peace between nations possible. Peace on earth is unthinkable with- out good will to men and this latter state is politically expressed in the form of what we have here called international co-citizenship.

Is it too much to hope that the world is now ripe for the adoption of a system of international relations that will banish ‘orever the specter of war from human affairs even at the cost of ‘ae abandonment and repudiation of the age-old anti-forcign orejudices and practices that have hitherto kept the nations at ggers’ points? Is it too much to hope that the peoples of the orld have had their fill of strife and hatred and are now ready ‘o unite in the bonds of a universal fellowship? Whether or not the world as a whole has now reached such a state of intellectual and moral maturity as to be prepared for such an exper:ment cer- tuin it is that only to the extent that the nations, whether acting ointly or individually, remold their policies in accordance with the principles of international fellowship as examplified in the pro- posal for international co-citizenship will the occasions for war and strife be removed and the era of perpetual peace be brought nearer. �[Page 230]THE NEW LILLIPUTIAN LAND by

L. A. HAWKINS

Research Lavoratory, General Electric Company

OKTY years ago physicists knew very many things that the

no longer know. During the past four decades physical sci.

ence has made far greater advances towards understanding

fundamentals of things than in all the previous history ot mankind, and as a result physicists today are confronted by more unknowns than ever before.

No paradox is involved. Someone has likened the growth o! scientific knowledge to the expansion of a citcle. The larger th: circie, the longer is its circumference, and it is the circumference that defines our contact with the unknown. Of course our circic cannot expand indctinitely unless it has space to grow in, and pos: sibly, even as recently as the beginning of this year, it might have been said that, because of Einstein’s curvature of space, our knowl. edge, when extended to cover some billions of light years, might comprehend all the universe, just as a growing spot on an orange will first colarge its circumference and then decrease it to zero as the spot covers the entire surface; but now Einstein himselt no longer sccms sure that space is curved. It may, as we believed in pre-rclativity days, extend in all directions to infinity.

But, after all, our analogy of the growing circle is not to be tuken too seriously. Knowledge exists not in space but in mind, and its dimensions are measured, not in light years, but in experi: mentally demonstrated facts. While it is true that our knowledge can never be complete unless it extends to the farthest reaches ot space, to infinity if space extends that far, even then it would not be all-comprehending unless it reached to the limits of the littlest things as well.

2a �[Page 231]LILLIPUTIAN LAND 231

Our grandfathers had a verse which ran,—

“Little drops of water, Little grains of sand, Make the mighty ocean And the pleasant land.”

A drop of water and a grain of sand represented the very small, and it is true that a grain of fine sand is about as small a thing as can be seen by the unaided eye. But it was known more than forty years ago that there were things much smaller than our best microscopes could see. A grain of sand may contain a billion billion atoms. No one has ever seen an atom, but science is not dependent on the direct evidence of our five senses. Scientitic orogress has been largely the result of developing devices for in- vestigating things which our unaided senses cannot perceive at all. In the great range of radiant energy, for instance, our eyes can verceive only a sing!e octave which we call light. Our bodies can .aguely recognize two or three lower octaves which we call heat. but from the electric waves we pick up on our radio broadcast ‘ceivers to the mysterious cosmic waves which come to us from ‘ice far depths of space, there are more than fifty octaves, of most + which our senses are wholly unconscious, but all of which sci- ace has made subject to observation and study.

So, forty years ago, chemists and physicists knew all about stoms. The trouble was, as we now realize, that they knew some things that were not so. For instance, they knew that the atom was the smallest possible unit of matter, indivisible, indestructible and mutable. Then one day a Frenchman, named Becquerel, hap- ,ened to leave some pitchblend near a photographic plate and was iter astonished to find an image on that plate. He traced the radiation which caused the image to the pitchblend and to the metal uranium in the pitchblend. Then the Curies took up the study «nd found that most, though not all, of those radiations came trom an element, before unknown, which was present as an im- purity in the uranium and which they named radium.

Further study showed that the atoms of both uranium and �[Page 232]232 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

radium were exploding, each at a definite rate, throwing off rad: ations of a kind never before known, and through a series of trans formations, turning into lead. So the indivisible, immutable an: indestructible atom went the way of many other scientific con cepts and dogmas based on insufficient knowledge. _

The radiations were of three kinds—alpha rays, or positive’; charged helium atoms; beta rays, or bits of negative electricit: which we now call electrons; and gamma rays, like X-rays but more penetrating.

Now the electron has been shown to have a diameter fitt: thousand times smaller than that of the smallest atom. If an electron were enlarged to the size of a grain of sand, the grain of sand would be about the size of the earth. But small as they are, elec trons are all-important, for, with the corresponding positive charges. they constitute, and determine the nature of, all bodies in the universe, from the smallest speck of dust to the largest star, and most of the physical research during the past thirty-five years has been directed to the electron and Lilliputian world in which it exists. And a strange world it is, that land of electronics, wholl; different from the world which our five senses reveal to us. The nature of the electron itself is strange, so strange that the physicist finds it hard to describe in language other than that of mathematics. and a peculiar mathematics at that. One of the leading physicists. a particularly able expositor of physical theory, presents a word picture of the electron which can be concisely paraphrased in the terms,—'‘a train of ripples in a non-existent probability.”

“Probability” is the sole law that the electron recognizes. Causation does not exist in its Lilliputian world. In that world met: aphorically speaking, water may run up hill, and fire may freeze. not burn. At first that may seem quite disturbing. In the physical world, at least, we have believed in, and based all our thoughts and acts on, universality and absoluteness of the law of cause and effect. and now we find, when we get closer to fundamentals, that that law has no foundation in fact. How then does it happen that the cngincer, proceeding confidently on the mistaken belief that a cer- �[Page 233]LILLIPUTIAN LAND 233

‘ain effect must always follow from a given cause, has so uniforml\ tound results confirming him in his error? It is because, given a irge enough number of events, the law of probability gives as certain results as the law of causation. That is why life insurance ompanies Can exist and prosper, no matter how unpredictable is the exact length of the time that any one individual may live. The engineer, dealing with the smallest currents is employing millions ot billions of electrons, and so may proceed with confidence un- shaken by the discovery that probability, not causation, is in the ast analysis determining his results.

So, while theoretical physics is still studying the nature of the clectron and the strange phenomena in which individual electrons play their part, the engineer has put electrons in mass to work, in the electron tube, which already has become the most versatile and interesting device at his command.

When atoms of a radioactive metal, like radium or uranium explode, electrons are hurled out at velocities which may be as high 4s 180,000 mi.es a second. From non-radioactive elements, work is required to get the electrons out, but when a metal or metalic oxide is heated, electrons are thrown out at much lower velocitics somewhat as molecules are evaporated from the surface of heated water. So, in most forms of electron tubes, a hot filament cither supplies the electrons directly from its surface or heats an oxide: coated electrode to cause it to emit electrons.

The form in which the electron tube is most familiar is that in which it appears in the radio broadcast receiver. It was the electron tube that made possible radio broadcasting, as well as trans-continental and trans-oceanic telephony, television, and the walking motion picture. Similar tubes are being used tor such purposes as controlling the signals in a locomotive cab or control ing the starting, stopping, and automatic leveling of clevators. but for most industrial applications a different type of tube ts better adapted. Radio tubes have a high vacuum. In tact, onc necessary development before high power radio tubes, such as are used in transmitting stations, could be successfully built, was to �[Page 234]234 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

learn how to produce and measure a higher degree of vacuum thu: was known before. But such tubes need high voltage if they are to vicld high power outputs; so for most industrial uses tubes called thyratrons, are better suited, which contain a drop of mer cury, so that mercury vapor at low pressure fills the bulb. Such tubes can carry large currents with a drop of about six volts, «: that they show good efficiency on ordinary commercial voltages.

‘Thyratron tubes are performing such diverse duties as contro! ling intermittent welding machines, regulating the tension in wir: drawing machines, synchronizing conveyers, and controlling thea. ter lighti. ;. flood lights and electric signs. Lights can be dimme: and regulated by thyratrons with no waste of energy in rheostats and with apparatus of relatively very small size.

While most electron tubes have hot filaments, as has been .!. ready explained, there is another type of tube in which electron: are emitted from a cold metal surface exposed to light. Most metals emit electrons under exposure to ultraviolet radiation, but some emit thera in quantity when exposed to visible light. A tub: with its inner walls coated with such a metal is a photoelectric tube, or electric eve. as it is popularly called.

Such a tube, in combination with a thyratron for amplifving the feeble photoelectric currents, is already performing such di verse functions as controlling furnace temperatures, counting unit: in production and automobiles passing through a tunnel, opening the doors in a restaurant or garage, routing product on convevers and mail sacks in a railway terminal, controlling the cutting ot of hot steel bars as they come from the rolls, supervising a pape: napkin machine to see to it that the napkins are so folded that the cdges register, turning on the lights in a school room when day- light grows too weak for the children’s eves, turning on strect lights and electric signs as it grows dark and turning them off at davbreak, controlling the exhaust tans in a tunnel, supervising 20 automatic wrapping and printing machine to insure that the print ing comes at the right place on the wrapper, and sorting beans ac cording to color. �[Page 235]LILLIPUTIAN LAND £24

The photo-tube is vastly quicker than the human eve, 1s mor nsitive to slow changes of light. and may be made to operate o on-visable light. either ultra-violet or infra-red. Electron tubes favs are instantaneous in action, and have no aoe parts

‘ectron tubes can be made so sensitive that they will detect a hu redth of a millionth of a billionth of an ampere.

Just as electric motors have taken over most of the muscula: sork of man and multiplied his output many fold. so clectros tubes are taking ower more and more of the routine inspections! or supervisory jobs and doing them better and quicker than human perators could. So it would seem that electron tubes may write another chapter in the story of technological unemployment.

Technological unemplovment presents a grave problem. With ‘.¢ motor-driven machines which engineering has produced. 2 mall fraction of our man power can produce all our necessities. oF t least all things that were considered necessities. forty vears ago ‘ortunately. in those forty vears engineering has developed many sev. things, some of which have come to be regarded as necessities and all of which have created new jobs. New industries have arisen ‘rom such things as the automobile, the radio broadcast receiver and cctric refrigerator, millions of new jobs have been created, and “rough the increased convenience. comfort and eniovment these ‘vices have brought, the standard of living hes been raised.

At the same time the hours ot work have been reduced. and eventually a greatly shortened working day, giving everyone muc more leisure for recreation and self-improvement, may make our

productive efficiency an unmixed blessing. But custom vields only sowly to changing ‘conditions, and we can as vet only dimly fore ee an economic regime comprehensively planned and adequately controlled.

And so, to reduce our present unemployment, we need more ‘vices to give more work in their production and more comtort and enjoyment in their use. No one can foresee more than a tew 1 the new things which, we may hope, the next two or three jecades will bring. Some new things are produced by deliberate �[Page 236]236 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

design, but others come unexpectedly from the discovery of ne: knowledge. There was no demand for radio-broadcasting unt after there had come into existence, as a result of research, electro: tubes which made broadcasting a possibility.

In the development of the radically new, the usual sequen: is,—rescarch, new knowledge, a new device made possible, an ap plication for the device, and a new industry, or a new product t manufacture and enjoy. Nowhere can we look more confidently fo: the initiation of such sequences than to research in the newest branc! of physics,—-clectrons. Research in that field has given us radi broadcasting, the talking motion picture and television. It seem: about to give us a new technique in electro-therapy of efficacy anc valuc in a variety of infectious diseases. It is giving the engineer « most versatile new tool, making possible many new undertakings It is bringing our knowledge closer and closer to the ven fundamentals of things,—to a better understanding, and possibl: even ultimately to the control, of the astounding forces within th atom. To science and to engineering alike it is opening up new helds from which we may surely expect many rich returns for the future benefit of mankind.

And in this new branch of physics, as in every other depart ment of science, advances into the new fields are being made on no narrow sector. Physicists in all lands, in ever swelling num: bers, in universities and in industrial, institutional and private laboratories, are closely cooperating in the world-wide forward movement. Each individual advance, each additional fact obtained by experiment, each new theoretical insight into the unknown, each new tool for widening the exploration, is immediately passed along the whole wide front, not only inspiriting but directly aiding ever worker in that great army of science. This free exchange is impeded by no tariff walls or national boundaries, for in scientific endeavor there already exists a true world solidarity for the benefit of all mankind.

The ninth article in a Symposium on THE SUBSTANCE OF WORLD COOPERATION) certrbucen of the scientist and engineer to international unity and peace, �[Page 237]WORLD ADVANCE A Monthly International Review

by

Oscar NEW FANG Author of “The Road to Peace,” cte.

TOWARD WORLD ECONOMIC PEACE

HE World War caused two profound changes in the cco nomic condition of the occidental world. It caused the demand for an enormous reparation payment to the allics by Germany, and it caused an enormous indebtedness by tie allies to America. Part of the reparations was payable in kind. put by far the largest part was payable in money; that is, in gold. the only money internationally acceptable. Germany found no par ucular difficulty making payments in kind; that is, in commodities or in services contributed to the restoration of northern France. In fact, this strong stimulation of the export business of Germany tor a time produced in that country a period of fictitious prosperity.

The German Reparation Payments

In making the payments demanded in gold or gold exchange, however, Germany began to feel in a short time great and increas: ing difficulty. In all modern countries gold is the basis of a super structure of currency and credit of about ten times its amount. When, therefore, a million units of gold (marks, pounds, trancs ot dollars) are exported from a country, this necessitates a restric ton of ten millions in the currency and credit superstructure, 1f even the slender 10% ratio of reserve is to be maintained. The withdrawal from Germany of the huge amounts of gold demanded tor reparation payments soon produced such strangulation of the industrial structure of Germany and such reduction in the security

247 �[Page 238]238 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

of its currency, that a total collapse impended; and it was recog nized even by the allies that a modification must be made. Sinc the principal difficulty was not in the ability of Germany to raise the reparation payments by internal taxation, but in the ability o Germany to transfer the amounts to the allies in gold or gold cx. change, the Bank for International Settlements was established to receive the payments in marks and to plan for their transfer to the allics only when, as and if such transfer did not wreck the currency and destroy the economic life of Germany.

In order to provide the necessary gold exchange for thes: transfers, Germany strove with all her might to increase the excess of her exports over her imports. The result of this policy was, that the allics found their own industries threatened by the flood o: German exports, against which they could not export their own manufactures to Germany. They found that they were receiving. on the whole, more harm than benefit from the German repara- tion payments; and the allies (especially France) therefore in turn applied restrictions of various kinds to the German imports into their countrics. This, of course, shut off all possibility of Ger. many's mecting her reparation payments. It resulted in the allied occupation of the Ruhr, which in turn led to the total collapse ot the German currency, which fell to three trillion marks to the dollar.

Hence the allies found it necessary to scale down their repara- tion demands through one “plan” after another, until at the Lau sanne gathering last year the entire 132 billion gold marks origin- ally demanded were finally cancelled by the payment of a cash sum infinitesimal by comparison. The slate has been practicall\ wiped clean.

The Allied Debts to America

The second great economic change caused by the World War. however, is still the source of great economic difficulties. The al: licd debts to America were payable, not in kind, but in gold or gold exchange. The difficulties met in making the enormous trans: fers of gold required were the same as those outlined in regard to �[Page 239]WORLD ADVANCE 239

(.rmany, since the currency and credit structures of the allicd

intries were fully ten times the amount of their gold holdings. od in the case of Great Britain somewhat larger than that. As t was impossible to transfer these large amounts of gold to America

chout ruining their currencies and their industries, the allies in ‘urn strove to increase the excess of their exports over their im- -orts, in order to obtain the necessary exchange with which to ect the payments. America, however, had for many decades been , debtor country and had built up its own necessary excess of ex- sorts by means of tariffs restricting imports into the country. As ‘he pressure of the allied merchandise for entrance into America acreased, the American government correspondingly raised its turtit walls to keep out the flood of goods, which would have de- soralized American industry.

The situation, therefore, approached a deadlock, which was ‘mporarily solved by America’s making foreign loans to Europe

‘und especially to Germany) in a volume sufficient not only to .suidate the American export excess, but also sufficient to cn. able rmany to transfer to the allies the necessary exchange for repara- "on payments, which the allies in turn transferred back to Amcrica order to meet their own payments.

This scheme worked only until the volume of loans grew so .irge that Germany could not even meet the interest charges on the vans. The result was the crash of leading credit institutions in \ustria and Germany, and a moratorium on all inter-governmental

.sments became necessary. That “standstill” arrangement still ‘unds with some countries, and with England and the remainder t will in all probability be renewed. We have reached an impasse.

The Battle of the Tariffs

These were not the only ruinous effects of the huge intergov-* cenit debts. Each country, in order to protect its gold reserve, 1s adopted an increasingly severe policy for the restriction of spe cither by tariffs or other preferences, licenses, quotas or

embargoes. All the leading countries, except France, have in ad- �[Page 240]240 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

dition placed such restrictions or prohibitions on the export of their gold that their currencies have become irredeemable, and hence have depreciated in various degrees. As a country’s currency de. preciated and gave it a temporary advantage in its export business, all the other countries sought to protect their industries from this deluge of imports by raising ever higher and higher their tariti or other restrictions against imports, and the battle of the tariffs began, which has cut down world trade from year to year in a vicious spiral, until at the present time international trade may fairly be considered as strangled nearly to death.

The destruction of international trade has completely de. ranged the domestic industrial structure of all the countries, has created such a wide gulf between farm prices and manufacturing prices that the farmers can no longer consume the manufactures of the cities. The result is ever-increasing unemployment in the cities and ever-increasing distress on the farms, making necessary cnormous relief measures for the urban population, and causing serious troubles on the farms through farmers’ holiday and riots against foreclosures of mortgages.

The Battle of the Depreciated Currencies

Into this sorry mess another disturbing element has been pre- cipitated. Since American tariff policy effectively shut out the pos: sibility of the payment of allied indebtedness in commodities, the result was the drain of a very large part of the world’s gold reserve to America, the reduction of gold reserve ratios in England to a fatal degree, and the weakening of the currency structure of European countries to such an extent that most of the leading countries ex- cept France have been forced off the gold standard. Their de- preciated currencies fluctuate from day to day, and the country with the heaviest depreciation temporarily has an advantage in all the export markets, because its labor costs at home do not immedi- ately rise to an extent that oftsets the currency depreciation. Thus England's currency depreciation temporarily held ‘the Indian cot- �[Page 241]WORLD ADVANCE 24!

ton trade until the Japanese yen depreciated to a far greater extent. and Japan captured the business.

ven America has gone off the gold standard and has entered the mad race to ruin; for there is but one end in a war among the na- tions to see which can debase its currency to the largest degree, the ultimate debacle of all the currencies in the manner of Ger- many in 1923. Will the world follow the mad dance of the crazy currency fluctuation to this logical end, or will sanity return in time ty prevent the debacle?

As the Manchester (England) Asssociation of Importers and | xporters, in its annual survey of world trade, says: ‘Distrust and animosity prevail everywhere, making it akin to destructive mili- ‘ary warfare. Every country is feverishly devising measures to de- crease imports and increase exports, the cumulative effect being an sll-around shrinkage of trading and industrial operations, which, t continued to its logical conclusion, means that each country is Jamoring to give its production away for nothing, a process which must finish in absolute bankruptcy.”

Or, as Finance Minister Guido Jung, of Italy, puts it: “Every {uropean nation, threatened with the loss of the payments on which it has counted and having to place on the other side of the scales the debts contracted abroad for the war, tries to overcome, in purt at least, the difficulties besetting it by attempting to throw the burden on other count.‘es. This is followed by the raising of cus- toms barriers—the restriction if not the actual prohibition of im- ports—in a desperate defense of each country’s currency. This ac- centuates the vicious circle of closing markets, falling prices, mount: ing surpluses of goods, unemployment, budget deficits, morator- ums, distrust and aggravation of the political situation, leading inally to even greater expenditures for armament and defense.”

How Shall This Economic Warfare be Ended?

From what has been said it would seem obvious that the re- striction of world economic peace requires the following measures: �[Page 242]242 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

Cancellation of reparations.

Cancellation of inter-allied debts.

Restoration of the gold standard.

Reversal of the policy of trade restrictions. Reversal of the policy of financial restrictions.

Ybywpn

Regarding the first of these measures nothing more need be said; it is for all practical purposes an accomplished fact.

Regarding the cancellation of inter-allied debts it has been the American contention that the loans to the allies were made in good faith and are legally due, and that cancellation of these debts would throw an unfair burden upon the American taxpayer. It is claimed that, while the European allies would renounce in reparations from Germany only the same amount that is cancelled in debt to America, and that they would therefore lose nothing whatever by the cancellation of both reparations and allied in- debtedness, the case of America is entirely different. America has no debt to any other country whose cancellation would offset her cancellation of the allied debts to her. The whole additional burden must, therefore, fall on the American taxpayers.

Which is true. The real question for America to decide, how- ever, is whether the bedevilment of the economic life of the whole world, including that of America, which has been the result of the attempt to make these huge international transfers of gold funds, has not been an evil to America far greater than the slight increase of taxation which would be necessary in America, if the debts were completely cancelled. The annual payment at present due on all of the allied debts is less than one tenth of the American national budget; and the American national budget itself is only a minor part of the total tax burden, national, state and local, car- tried by the American citizen. The total increase in the burden of taxation of the individual citizen, therefore, would hardly be more than 39% or 4%, probably less than the former figure.

There is no question about the legal right of America to col- lect the debts. There is serious question as to the moral right to col- �[Page 243]WORLD ADVANCE 243

lect, and there is a certainty that there is no practical common sense intrying to collect them. Passing over any legal discussion, the moral aspect seems to be this: for three long years our allies in our com- mon war put in their blood, while we put in our cash. Even the governmental loans made after the close of the war were part and

parcel of the total war effort. Why not be generous and say to out allies: “Boys, you have carried the heavy end of the load’ ot suffering. We will call it square, wipe the slate and start a new deal?”

If this is done, it will be comparatively easy to carry out the third measure suggested above, the re-establishment of the gold standard in all the leading commercial countries. This is practi- cally impossible while huge and constant drains upon the gold re- serves of the principal European countries must be made to meet American payments, without any possibility of establishing a excess of exports to America which would cause an equiv. die return flow of gold. England, financially the strongest country in [urope, tried valiantly to restore her pound sterling to its im- memorial parity with gold and its historic stability as a medium of world commerce, but the American drain of gold has again forced England off the gold standard. France, next in strength among European countries, has seen the impossibility of continuing for decades to come the annual drain of her gold to America and has re- fused to make further payments in gold. No doubt France would be perfectly willing to pay, if she were permitted to pay in commodi- ties; but her astute financiers see the impossibility of these long- continued payments in naked gold.

The restoration of the gold standard in all the leading com- mercial countries of the world would do more than any other: single measure to stimulate world trade, including American cx- port trade which is so sorely needed by our cotton and wheat farmers, whose purchasing power, in turn, is so sorely needed by our urban manufacturers to restore employment and prosperity. The benefits resulting from the re-establishment of the gold stand- dard in all countries would far outweigh the small additional tax �[Page 244]244 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

burden of the American citizen which would result from the com plete cancellation of inter-allied debts. .

With a few words regarding the fourth and fifth measure suggested above this article will close. It would, of course, caus intolerable dislocation and derangement of all industry and t; nance, if the innumerable restrictions to the free international flow of commodities and funds were removed all at once. That would be like demolishing a building with dynamite instead of taking it down bit by bit, in the reverse order in which the materials were crected. In order to remove these causes of the strangulation o: trade, employment and prosperity, it might be well to fix a Reversa! Date, the abolition of each restriction in all countries to be auto: matically made at the same interval after'the reversal date as th restriction had existed before the reversal date. By this metho. the restrictions woula be removed in the order in which the were erected and without any great jolt to business in any countn

This article has dealt only with the ending of the presex: raging economic war. The further and more far-reaching measure: necessary to prevent future economic wars, owing to the limit. tion of space, must be reserved for the next article. (For the rcader’s information, this article was written before the opening of the World Economic and Monetary Conference. ) �[Page 245]THE WORLD OF REALITY by RuHl AFNAN

the visible world of human action reflects that deeper con-

fusion ruling in the world of human thought and belief.

The path of religious guidance has for the majority of seople divided into three faint trails leading by different dirce- ons toward an impenetrable future.

The first of these trails is ecclesiasticism; the second is hu- manism; the third is mysticism.

In this essay an effort is made to analyze, in the light of pure rcligion, that is, the religion of the Prophets, some of the more deep-seated fallacies inherent in the mystical attitude and philo- sophy, whose subtle lure marks a definite danger to the human oul at one stage of its development.

Humanity at this time needs above all valid sources of 1n- spiration and renewal for its inner life—new and greater impulses toward that condition of loving unity and brotherhood upheld by the Prophet in every age. No student of existing social con- ditions can afford to overlook the fact that the lure of mysticism increases in potency as fatigue and discouragement, the result of years of warfare and economic upheaval, lie heavily upon countless hearts. It is at such a time as the present that quietistic and other movements based upon mysticism are likely to spread far and wide, diverting masses of people from the true social task and imprison- ing their spirits in a subjective realm of shadowy unrcality.

The more that people are suppressed in their normal daily lives, the more they incline to accept philosophies which supply

245

T* strange and disturbing confusion which has seized upon �[Page 246]246 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

sustenance to the pride of ego divorced from ordinary standards of achievement.

A discussion of mysticism, indeed, seems vitally important, in that its tenets represent hard, unyielding attitudes which in some ages have suppressed all effective social action and in fact justi. fied collective impotence by specious arguments inviting eventual catastrophe.

But what is mysticism? According to Dean Inge, “Mysticism is a very wide subject, and the name has been used more loosely even than socialism.” In this broad sense, mysticism includes every phase of > .n’s spiritual life, and according to this interpretation it embraces all religions and establishes the Prophets as the su- preme mystics of the race. It makes mysticism and spirituality interchangeable terms. But Dean Inge has also defined mysticism more definitely: “Religious mysticism may be defined as the at- tempt to realize the presence of the living God in the soul and in nature, or more generally, as the attempt to realize in thought and feeling the immanence of the temporal in the eternal and the eter: nal in the temporal.”

He further says, “Thus it soon became clear to me that mysti- cism involves a philosophy and at bottom is a philosophy.” The broader definition may be dismissed as essentially meaningless. In practice, mysticism is not the wholeness of religion, but one particu-

lar part of religion which, made a phii + ~"ts itself away from that wholeness of the spiritual life and . expounder of religion but a separate cult. This separa ‘al cult, or

philosophy, has even at times become one of the tiu.. inveterate enemies of true religion.

Many people not themselves mystics regard mysticism as the very essence of religion, its secret heart, because they look not at the outcome but at the origin of this special philosophy.

Every Prophet has raised up notable followers of a mystical nature whose innate tendencies toward an exclusive inner life have been restrained by their devotion and zeal for their divine leader. Such followers tend to identify mysticism with devotion to and �[Page 247]Cd

THE WORLD OF REALITY 247

sacrifice for the very source of religion on earth. It is necessary to follow the mystical tendency into later times, when the Prophet's influence has receded, when ecclesiasticism has become dominant, ind the effects of devotion and love for the Faith are no longer powerful enough to hold the secret ego in check. Careful consider- ition of mysticism at such times will reveal the chasm between the Prophet’s teaching and the subtle philosophies that form esoteric schools of thought claiming His name. Mysticism, then, underneath all its terminologies and symbolisms, is essentially a particular philosophy and not a facet of religion.

The value of this distinction becomes manifest when one realizes that the evils inherent in mystical philosophy become re- vealed when carried to its logical conclusion. Religion may be likened to a sun of truth which illumines the world of rcality. Mysticism is a candle lighted in the darkened chamber of the sub- ective self, disclosing only that which the self imagines to be true.

Mysticism is not unique in any one religious tradition—all taiths seems to provide the fertile soil in which its growth may flourish. In the history of every Prophetic faith the appearance of mystical philosophies represents the same stage of decadence. Since the human characteristics repeat themselves from age to age and race to race, the principles of mysticism are identical in Europe and the East. The late Prof. Browne declared that ‘‘many of the utterances of Eckhart, Tauler or St. Teresa would, if translated into Persian, easily pass current as the word of Sufi Shaykhs.”

The teachings of Baha'u'llah contain many explanations of the untrue elements found in Sufi philosophy. These teachings, and their interpretation by ‘Abdu’l-Baha, have been taken as the basis of the following analysis of the chief tenets of mystical philosophy. Aside from the pure religious teaching of one who has restored spiritual truth to a sore beset world, there can be no guidance through the confusion of thought and action in this crucial age.

While few readers may acknowledge themselves as “mystics” in any technical sense, consideration of the chief tencts of mysti- �[Page 248]259 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

“But the proceeding through manifestation (by this is meant the divine appearance, and not division into parts) we have said, is the proceeding and appearance of the Holy Spirit and the Word ’ which is from God. As it is said in the Gospel of St. John: ‘In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God:’ then the Holy Spirit and the Word are the appearance of God. . . . .

In these passages ‘Abdu’'l-Baha mentions two ways by which the Divine Essence reveals itself in the world. The first, which He terms manifestation, means that the same reality has assumed another form. It is like the rays of the sun reflected in the mirror The reflected rays are only another form of the light that is shed by the sun. This method of divine revelation pertains only to the Prophets.

The second form of Divine revelation is called creation. It means that a totally new reality is produced. Even though a table has its origin in the mind of a carpenter yet its reality is funda mentally different. This form of revelation comprises our uni. verse and includes the rational soul which is the spiritual element in

man. (To be continued) �[Page 249]BOOK NOTES by

JosEPH S. ROUCEK

Department of Sociology, Pennsylvania State Collene

Our Obsolete Constitution, by William Kay Wallace. Joby Diy Co., New York, 1932. Pp. 226. $2.00. et

The Coming of a New Party, by Paul H. Douglas. Whittlese House, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1932. Pp. ix, 236. $2.00.

ls there a Case for Foreign Missions? by Pearl S. Buck. Thx | hn Day Pamphlets. Pp 30. 25 cents. 1932.

The present world-wide depression has been performing indirect: ) one great service: the people are now questioning seriously some ot their “sacred cows” of political thinking. That such is the ‘act is attested by the appearance of these volumes, all of which would have brought the wrath of our dyed-in-the-wool senti- mental and unreasonable patriots on the heads of the authors some ‘ears ago. Thus Mr. Wallace quite openly tells us that our Con- stitution does not serve the needs of the present and then procecds to tell us in what respect that document hinders much-needed legis- ition. He shows ably how the original purposes of the government have changed (somewhat in the manner of Dr. Charles A. Beard) ind demonstrates that powerful forces—corporations—can very cttectively get what they want in the way of legislation; thus now the people need a free and untrammeled government to protect them against the new forms of industrial tyranny. From this nega- tive attitude the author turns to constructive suggestions, arguing that the only alternative to violent revolution is a complete re- vision of the Constitution of the United States. He has a concrete proposal, with which few will agree, though we must thank 1 Mr. Wallace for his vigorous presentation of his. case————-— ——-——

251 �[Page 250]252 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

Professor Douglas of the University of Chicago as a true liber. al outlines for us a program of liberalism and analyzes tactics by which such a program can be put into effect. He evidently does not like our present political system, as represented by the old parties, and proceeds in brilliant fashion to tell us why. He demonstrates that the wealth of the country is being centralized into a few hands —an old fact told in a new and splendid way. The “opportunity’ for the workers (whether they are of white collared or of the manual class) is passing, possibly never to return. Professor Doug. lass believes that we must give up many sentimentalities of the past and work for programs which will be interested in the farmer and laborer and make their lives more profitable. He minces no words when he tears into our tariffs. But he offers us for remedies such alluring suggestions as greater security, minimum wage laws, a drastic change in the tax system, more taxes against wealth and incomes, the socialization of medicine, suitable housing for the poorer classes, etc. His thoughtful reasoning carefully analyzes the technique of “boring from within” the old parties to use either the Republican or the Democratic party as a potential liberal organiza- tion; but he is clearly aware of the difficulties which would hamper a realization of such plan. All things considered, he is convinced that a new party should be established, based on the non-privileged classes of people, particularly the farmers and workers.

No doubt the achievement of the plans of Professor Doug: las would liberalize our foreign and international policies. We thus must add our voice of praise to his work, considering it a brilliant ideal toward which we all should strive, though such ideal seems to be far distant.

Mrs. Buck’s story also goes a long way in abolishing a “sacred cow” of our Christian missionary efforts. We have read already the story in one of our national magazines and we have enjoyed re- reading it again. The psychological reactions of the poorly prepared missionaries and their inability to grasp the sociological realities with which they have to deal are stated here with force by a woman who, being a missionary herself, knows what she is talking about. �[Page 251]BOOK NOTES 253

But we are glad to note that she advances the argument that in her experience more genuine spirit of goodness has been detectable in regions in which Christianity has penetrated than in those in which t has not; consequently, Mrs. Buck thinks, there is a case for forcign missions,

Building the World Society, by Laura W. McMallen, W hittle- ¢y House, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1931, Pp. xiv, 434. $2.50. There seems to be no end of books, and especially text- books, instructing readers in international relations. Though this - volume was one of the first to be issued, it has, ever since, been over- shadowed by other more thorough books. The author has gathered more than one hundred articles by leading writers in the ficld, pre- senting the salient aspects of the international situation today and summing up the issues and events from the period immediately pre- ceding the World War to the present. As such, it is an attempt to wrestle valiantly with a vast subject. The articles, the reviewer be- eves are not always the best that could be found on the subject. but that might be only a private opinion. In addition, the picture here presented is somewhat disjointed and blurred, which could have been avoided had the subject been written by one specialist inthe field. The treatment. might serve for those who are aiming to get a rapid and not too deep instruction. Those who consider that the study of the subject of international relations demands a vast sociological, historical, political, psychological, geographical, and other preparation, will have to look for their material in other volumes which have been mentioned in our previous reviews.

Pioneer Youth in Palestine, by Shlomo Bardin. Bloch Pub. Co., New York, 1932. Pp, 182. $1.50. Mr. Bardin’s thesis is that the “crystallization of youth into a specific strata of socicty is manifesting itself in Jewish life as a unique movement of Pioneer Youth. . . . It is determined to build a new type of society, a free and creative Labor Commonwealth. And it has, moreover, already suceeded in laying the foundations of this new socicty. Academic youths have transformed themselves into laborers. Urban vouths have created rural agricultural settlements. Thousands of �[Page 252]254 WORLD UNITY MAGAZINE

young men and women have left middle-class homes and career: and flocked to Palestine to rebuild the nation and country, and to recreate themselves.”

During the last twenty-five years, the movement has grown to proportions which number over 40,000 in Palestine, and of about 100,000 abroad. Those who believe that the future lies with the

• movement of youth should notice this volume. It records the evo:

lution of this movement, its inception, struggles and achievements. though it is limited to the Palestine pioneer endeavor.

\’. K. Wellington Koo, Memoranda Presented to the Lytton Commission, Vol. 1, pp. 464, Vol. I pp. 940. Published by the Chinese Cultural Society, 743 Fifth Ave., New York, 1932. $3.00 for the two volumes. The teviewer is convinced that this world should not be made safe for imperialism, and consequently he enjoys heartily the thorough whacking which the Chinese propa- ganda is handing out to contemporary imperialists. The Chinese are learning the art of propaganda. The documents, statistics, maps and other material are rather convincing, and especially so for those ‘who stand on the Chinese side of the fence. Obviously, the work aims to switch American public opinion to its side. At any rate, the Chinese have here presented a good case. �[Page 253]NOTES ON THE PRESENT ISSUE

Mr. Carl A. Ross returns to World Unity this month with the urst of a new series on World Citizenship. An exposition that several years ago had to be largely theoretical, based upon general principles, has since been reinforced by the rise of several problems unsolvable by competitive national sovereignties—tariffs, currency and war debts. Behind these barriers the force of social pressure gathers enormous weight and mass, a flood that can make for peace- tul improvement or for violent change.

The principle of Co-Citizenship expounded by Mr. Raphael Buck is another valuable contribution to the ideal of an ordered world upheld by World Unity. When cleared of the mists of prej- udice, the rational mind sees all social problems in terms of an or- dered world. Whatever else the London Conference may do, it serves to focus the underlying issues that make for peace or war.

Meanwhile, as Mr. L. A. Hawkins illustrates, the steady march of science proceeds outside the control of any form of social propa- ganda, creating the ingredients of a society possessing sufficient icisure to continue education throughout the span of human life.

Apart from the new range of moral and mental significances arising from our desperate effort to establish a world community, re- ligion might be dismissed by many as a professional attitude or temperamental interest with which they no longer have any but occasional concern. But the matter of motive remains the central issue in every social question in an age when every traditional sucial boundary has been overthrown. For this reason, the analysis of the mystical philosophy by Ruhi Afnan, grandson of ‘Abdu'l- Baha, has rightful place in a magazine devoted to the world out- look. If the modern age has been carried forward by industrial and political revolutions, a revolution in the religious world is necessary to complete the regeneration of mankind.

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